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THE IRON-FOUNDER: 



A COMPREHENSIVE TREATISE ON 

THE ART OF MOULDING. 

INCLUDING CHAPTERS ON 

CORE MAKING; LOAM, DRY-SAND, AND GREEN-SAND MOULDING; 

ALSO CRYSTALLIZATION, SHRINKAGE, AND CONTRACTION OF 

CAST-IRON, AND A FULL EXPLANATION OF THE SCIENCE 

OF PRESSURES IN MOULDS; ADDED TO WHICH ARE 

FORMULAS FOR MIXTURES OF IRON, TABLES, 

RULES, AND MISCELLANEOUS INFOR- 
MATION. 



bV 

SIMPSON ^BOLLAND, 

\\ 
Practical Moulder and Manager of Foundries. 



*nustratc& toitfj ober Sfjree 2Qun&reDr 2£ngrabutfis* 




0QmmHz !s $# 



24 1892 

NEW YORK: 

JOHN WILEY & SONS, /Jo30 
53 East Tenth Street. 

1892. 






Copyright, 1892, 

BY 

SIMPSON BOLLAND. 



<Pl 



% 



Robert Drummond, Ferris Bros., 
Electrotyper, Printers, 

444 & 446 Pearl Street, 326 Pearl Street, 
New York. New York. 



PREFACE. 



In" writing this book the principal object of the author 
has always been to help such of his fellow- crafts men as, 
by force of circumstances, have been shut out from the wider 
experience which it has been his good fortune to enjoy. 

It is not supposed that because a man is ignorant of cer- 
tain truths connected with his trade or profession, that he 
is desirous of always remaining in that condition; but it 
must be conceded that very few of us care to confess our 
ignorance openly, and accept the teachings of those with 
whom we have been in daily contact, and for whose ability 
we have entertained only common respect, without question 
or subsequent investigation. 

No man cares to parade his ignorance who feels within 
himself a consciousness of ability, if only the opportunity 
for improvement were offered him; and hundreds of men 
in our foundries to-day are earnestly looking for the means 
which shall lift them to a higher plane of usefulness, as well 
as establish within themselves a greater degree of self-re- 
spect. 

It will be a source of great satisfaction to the author if 
the advent of this book should be a help to such. 

As the title indicates, the subjects treated are numerous 
and interesting, especially to moulders; in fact this may be 
considered as a moulder's book, inasmuch as its pages are 

iii 



iv PREFACE. 

devoted almost exclusively to such things as perplex the 
moulder in his every-day experience. 

Care has been taken both in detailed description and 
profuse illustration to make everything plain to the reader, 
and the choice of subjects for illustration has been made 
with the view of bringing out the best and most correct 
ideas of moulding. 

It is hoped that the subject of Crystallization, herein 
treated in mere outline only, will interest the reader suffi- 
ciently to cause still further investigation in that important 
branch of science. 

The author hopes that the chapter on Pressures will, in 
some measure at least, help to dispel the mystery which 
has hitherto surrounded that subject, and thinks that the 
table appended will be appreciated by such as do not care 
to study the whole subject as presented. 

When it is remembered that cupolas, ladles, cranes, and 
all appliances for transmission of power, are in the hands 
of specialists who might in a majority of cases furnish a 
better article at less cost, with all the necessary formulae for 
their successful working, the author judges it would have 
been unwise to admit the discussion of such subjects in 
these pages, to the exclusion of topics of far greater interest 
to the moulder. 

The tables, some of which are original, will be found use- 
ful in daily practice, and much time usually required for 
calculation will be saved by consulting them. 

Simpson Bolland. 

New York. 



CONTENTS. 



- - 



PART I. 

INTRODUCTION. 

PAGE 

Moulders: Past, Present, and Future 1 

To Apprentices. . . . 4 

A First-class Moulder 8 

Educated Moulders. ... 12 

Apprenticeship by Indenture 14 

Moulders' Tools — their Use and their Abuse 20 

Foundry Flasks or Boxes 37 

Foundry Ovens. 52 

Crystallization and Shrinkage of Cast-iron 63 

Pressures in Moulds 88 

Chilled Castings 114 

Mixture for Rolls. 116 



PART IL 

CORE-MAKING. 

• king. .-.-.. :y>' ".' '.' . '. 121 

PART III. 

LOAM-MO ULDING. 

Loam-moulding ........ 147 

Moulding in Loam, from a Complete Pattern. . „ 171 

To mould Kettles and Pans in Loam, with Full Instructions for 
Casting Bottom Up or Bottom Down 180 

v 



V1 CONTENTS. 



PAGE 



Casings for Kettles and Pans, and How to Make them. . 186 

Moulding Condensers, Tanks, Hot-wells, Cisterns, etc., in Loam.' 191 

To Mould a Screw-propeller in Loam , 2 03 

Making Elbows, Bends, and Branch-pipes in Loam.' . . '. .' .' . .... 209 
Making Large Elbow-pipes on End in Loam 227 



PART IV. 

DRY-SAND MOULDINP 

Dry-sand Moulding, wi*w« - ' _. _.„ 

m„ „<.,.„ «-- .. xtn Examples for making Different 

-0:«^e "6t' "Work 233 

To Mould a Steam-cylinder in Dry Sand 243 

Cores for Moulding Steam-cylinders in Dry Sand 250 

Jacket-cores for Moulding Steam-cylinders 256 

Moulding Guns, Hydraulic Cylinders, etc 264 

To Mould Cylindrical Work in Top and Bottom Flasks with 
Spindle and Sweep 274 



PART V. 

GREEN-SAND MOULDING. 

Pulleys, and How to Make them 284 

To Make Square and Rectangular Columns 297 

To Mould Bevel-wheels without a Full Pattern 305 

Moulding Bevel and Mitre "Wheels 312 

Spur-wheel Moulding from a Segment and Spindle 315 

Spur-wheels of Different Depths from the Same Pattern. 322 

A Method for Making Irregular-shaped Pipes in Green Sand ... 324 

Moulding Small Castings 33 Q 

A Method of Moulding Pipes and Columns D. 

Instructions for Making Patterns from Models, Templets, Plas- 
ter Casts, Carved Blocks, etc • . » . « ° • • • 339 

PART VI. 

MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS, RECIPES, TABLES, ETC. 

Useful Rules of Mensuration , , 350 

Cast-iron Alloys • 352 

Weight of Cast-iron Balls in Pounds 352 



CONTENTS. Vll 

PAGE 

Table showing the Weight or Pressure a Beam of Cast-iron will 
sustain without destroying its Elastic Force when it is sup- 
ported at Each End and loaded in the Middle. 353 

Weight in Pounds of Circular Plates One Inch Thick from 1 to 

103 Inches in Diameter 354 

Table of Dimensions and Weights of Short-linked Chains and 

Ropes, and Proof of Chain in Tons 355 

To Mend Castings 355 

Weight of One Cubic Inch of Different Metals in Pounds 356 

Weight of Different Substances in Pounds 357 

Capacity of Cisterns for Each 10 Inches in Depth 357 

The Fractional Parts of an Inch in Decimals 358 

Melting-points of Solids 358 

Strength of Materials 358 

Relative Stiffness of Materials to resist a Transverse Strain 358 

Weight of Cast-iron Pipes per Lineal Foot from 2 Inches to 10 

Feet Core 359 

Weight per Lineal Foot of Round Columns 364 

Weight of Castings from Patterns 364 

Weight of Square Columns 365 

Weight of Square Plates One Inch Thick 367 

Weight of a Superficial Square Foot in Pounds from T ^ Inch to 

3 Inches 368 

Table showing the Weight or Pressure a Beam of Cast-iron, 1 
Inch in Breadth, will sustain, without destroying its Elastic 
Force, when it is supported at each End and loaded in the 
Middle of its Length, and also the Deflection in the Middle 
which that Weight will produce 369 



THE IRON-FOUNDER 



PART I. 

INTRODUCTION. 



MOULDERS: PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE. 

We often see in the " want" columns of our trade jour- 
nals and newspapers where some young man advertises 
himself as not only being capable in all respects to fill the 
position he seeks, but backs up the application by saying 
that he holds a certificate of competency granted by one or 
other of the great schools of technology. 

Very frequently this young aspirant is sneered at by our 
so-called "practical fellows," who, I am sorry to say, are 
only too ready to condemn all such who have had the cour- 
age to step out of the beaten tracks in the honest effort to 
thoroughly master their trade in theory as well as in practice. 

Let us look for a moment at the course this young man 
has pursued to obtain his certificate, after which we will 
compare him with some of his detractors. 

In the first place he had a sensible father, who every 
day suffered more or less on account of the lack of edu- 
cation. 



2 THE IRON-FOUNDER. 

This father, although an excellent workman, as things 
go, had been unable to get beyond the front rank of jour- 
neymanship from the fact that, like hundreds of others, he 
was unable to give a reason for what he was doing to effect 
certain results in the foundry; and oh ! how many times 
had he seen men preferred above himself all because of the 
" bit of book learning" which they possessed in conjunction 
with the natural talents shared in common with himself. 

Smarting from this, he determines that his son, who has 
been duly apprenticed to the trade, shall have full oppor- 
tunity to develop into a good man as well as a good mechanic, 
and so proceeds to surround him with good influences, 
excites his ambition, and encourages him in all legitimate 
means to obtain the desired end. 

He enters him on the rolls of the nearest institution of 
learning, technological or otherwise, where at evenings he 
at once begins a course of study which will enable him to 
understand his trade in all its bearings; and as this mode 
of procedure is productive of increased zeal, every day 
sees the foundation of a useful career growing at a pace 
which before had seemed impossible of realization. For 
it must be remembered, that as the boy increases in knowl- 
edge his ambition to excel kindles to the heat which will 
keep him constant to his studies, insuring success in the 
end. 

This, then, is the young man who possesses the certifi- 
cate, and where is the sense or reason in sneering at him ? 

We will inquire into the difference between him and such 
shopmates as have not qualified in the lines of thought 
pursued by the former. 

Firstly, his acquired knowledge enables him to determine 
the nature of the materials he works with, and by a careful 
analysis of such before using insures a measure of success 
to which the uneducated is a stranger. 

Secondly, the foundry furnishes abundant opportunity 



MOULDERS: PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE. 3 

for the practical demonstration of the almost numberless 
theories in natural philosophy, and of exploding also the 
several so-called mysteries which have gathered around the 
business of founding owing to the ignorance of the past. 

And what an advantage our educated young man has 
over his fellows ! — for, knowing absolutely what will result 
from certain modes of procedure, he can easily avoid all 
errors, and thus secure distinction and recognition; for it 
must be conceded that if the intelligence of the moulder 
measured up to the magnitude of the job he undertakes to 
do, barring accident, he would never fail in its successful 
accomplishment. 

Instead of sneering at the refined young man in the 
foundry, let us rather thank God that the ignorant father 
was led to do his duty by his son. And such of us as have 
boys of our own, let us hasten to do likewise; for, rest assured, 
it is only through determined effort in the right direction, 
by the fathers of to-day, that future moulders will be supe- 
rior to those of the past. 

But I am persuaded that we have entered upon a new 
era: the schools are slowly but surely accomplishing their 
great work; and as education increases, intemperance 
with its train of evils recedes from view. The sot in our 
foundries seeks to hide his face rather than to flaunt his 
shortcomings. 

I can with great pleasure now see the leavening influ- 
ence of intelligence : these young men are the stones, as it 
were, which mark the march of intellect among us; and 
before long I hope to see moulders take the place which 
legitimately belongs to them — the very foremost rank in 
the trades. 

I am anxiously looking for the time when it shall not 
be necessary to call in the aid of an engineer to arrange 
for the production of castings of more than ordinary 
magnitude, and when, by reason of such a course as is 



4 THE IRON-FOUNDER. 

marked out above, such does occur, then will the moulder 
be able to command such remuneration for his labor as will 
secure for him the title which by rights belongs to him — 
the prince of mechanics. 



TO APPRENTICES. 

The whole of our trade is not learned exclusively in the 
foundry, and fortunate indeed is the apprentice of to-day 
in having for his guidance so many avenues of information 
other than the daily routine of the shop in which he is 
serving his time. Innumerable opportunities present 
themselves to-day for the young man's advancement in his 
trade, which did not exist when some of us were boys. 
Such being the case, it is surely not too much to expect 
that superior skill should be developed at this day, when 
compared with times past. The business of writing on the 
subject of moulding has until lately been monopolized 
by theorists, whose efforts have in the main proved fail- 
ures, so far as the object for which they wrote is concerned, 
entirely misleading the uninitiated, and of no practical 
service to the workman; for the simple reason that the 
author has not had the practical training requisite to 
understand intelligently what he was writing about. 

It is not to be expected that a mere observer of our 
trade, one who collects his data from books with ideas 
vague as his own, can understand from such an appren- 
ticeship that which a lifetime's experience in the work 
itself fails very often to accomplish. 

True, there were some few engineers of rare ability in 
their own sphere who, seeing the necessity for useful and 
instructive manuals for the use of moulders, wrote works 
far beyond the intelligence of most moulders, yea, abso- 
lutely unintelligible to great numbers, owing to the fact 



TO APPRENTICES. 5 

that the moulders were ignorant of the various branches 
of natural philosophy, and therefore could not understand 
them. 

These books are only to be found in the employer's 
office, unused, and covered with dust. During the last few 
years a gradual change has been taking place. We now 
find many of our most intelligent moulders who are not 
afraid of publishing their opinions upon subjects relating 
to the trade they follow. 

It used to be said that our best workmen were the least 
able to impart their own knowledge to others; but I am 
proud to say that many of our numbers have come to the 
front in foundry literature, — conclusively refuting the 
above stigma. 

My object in writing this is certainly not to excel as an 
author: that would be presumption on my part, inasmuch 
as my time has been spent in the foundry ; but I am 
anxious to have a plain talk with young moulders, and, if 
possible, help them to understand their trade, as well as 
their responsibilities, better, in order to qualify themselves 
for preferment. 

There has always been more or less repugnance on the 
part of parents to apprentice their boys to the trade of 
moulder, arising in a large measure from the fact that, to 
all appearance, it was not as clean and respectable as that 
of pattern-maker or machinist; and moulders themselves 
have contributed in no small degree towards making it 
unpopular, lacking, as they have, a right appreciation of 
their calling; but, thanks to the influence of superior edu- 
cation, not only moulders, but also the rest of the iron 
trades, are beginning to realize that the trade of moulder 
is not only respectable, but that, in order to become an 
expert in the art, demands are made on the intelligence of 
the man far greater than are required to master other 
branches of the metal industries. 



6 THE IRON-FOUNDER. 

The moral tone of our foundries has improved to a 
remarkable extent of late, and amongst our moulders are 
now to be found some of the brightest and best men of the 
d av — m en with whom no parent need be afraid or ashamed 
to trust their sons. 

Keverting to the subject of cleanliness, I am persuaded 
that if the same care was exercised to keep the foundry 
clean and in order as there is for the pattern and machine 
shop, we should hear less complaints on that head ; and 
when we remember that the great Michael Angelo himself 
had to work amidst the chips and dust from the stone 
which he so marvellously chiselled before he could accom- 
plish the mighty works of art he has given to the world, 
we need not be fastidious with regard to such minor 
matters. 

" What age shall I apprentice my son ?" is a question we 
often hear asked by the parent. If he is to be a moulder, 
let him not be older than fifteen years, as the nature of 
the profession demands that the apprenticeship shall be 
a long one ; coming young to the work, he all the more 
readily adapts himself to the nature of his calling, and has 
ample time to go through the legitimate routine required 
to make a good mechanic. 

Let me here observe that a great mistake is only too fre- 
quently made by the parents when their boy commences 
work, and the boy himself readily falls into the snare, — 
which is, to imagine that there is no further need of school 
and study. Avoid this common error, young man; and 
realize, if you can, that now is the time to apply such 
knowledge as you already possess, and that you need to be 
making constant additions to your knowledge, and prepar- 
ing the mind for the increased demands which will be 
made on you, as you march, as it were, step by step to the 
end of your apprenticeship. The fact that such results 
ensue from a certain course of action is not the whole so- 



TO APPRENTICES. 7 

lution of the problems which daily present themselves in 
the foundry; therefore let the intelligent young man, who 
has chosen to be a moulder, continue his education, by 
pursuing a course of study at home, or better, at one of the 
schools of technology, in such branches of natural philoso- 
phy as are likely to be of use to him whilst he is learning 
his trade. 

By so doing, a real and intelligent knowledge of the 
business will be acquired as he goes along, enabling him to 
do that which hundreds of so-called moulders are unable 
to do, viz., to give a reason for every step he takes in the 
execution of his work. 

Another desideratum is to cultivate the acquaintance of 
such of his shopmates as are upright and sober; and in all 
things, both in and out of the shop, let his deportment be 
such as will command the respect of his superiors ; by so 
doing he will not only gain their good-will and help, but 
will also be laying a foundation for the future, which will 
enhance his prospects more than he thinks for. 

Of course the young man must not flatter himself that 
he is going to master all the intricacies of his trade without 
meeting many difficulties, and perhaps failures ; but if 
after due effort on his own part he should still fail to see 
his way clear, let him make known his troubles to the 
foreman, or some of the most skilful and sensible men, 
who will at once assist him to overcome his task, and take 
great pleasure in doing it. 

Lastly, he must select for his companions only such as 
will assist him to rise, being ever ready to reciprocate their 
efforts in his behalf; maintain a strict integrity and deter- 
mine to manfully do his share in keeping up a high intel- 
lectual and moral standard in his profession. 



«L 



8 THE IRON-FOUNDER. 



A FIRST-CLASS MOULDER. 

Such is the title applied to many of our trade who, if 
their capabilities were examined by the light of modern 
research, would be found utterly wanting in the principles 
and laws which govern the art of moulding. 

It is not enough at this day that a man who takes to 
himself the above title shall be able to produce a creditable 
casting from the pattern given him to work from. The 
probabilities are that everything is found in good form for 
its production, the methods of manipulation having been 
thought out by some one in advance of him, either foreman 
or journeyman — not nn frequently the latter. 

Very many of our so-called "first-class moulders" are 
clever only in their ability to "catch on" or "pick up" the 
modes of working going on around them. Such men will 
have their organs of imitation well developed, and in more 
senses than one will rank only with the parrot — as mere 
copyists or imitators. Others, again, having excellent 
memories, can recall experiences, either of themselves or 
others, and turn such to good account by avoiding past 
errors or by again adopting means which have worked suc- 
cessfully in the past, and thus escape present disaster. 

It is not my aim to depreciate in any sense the work of 
men whose natural intelligence is their only recommenda- 
tion, for it must be admitted that such men have been in 
the past great factors in foundry practice, and it is not 
wise to dispute their authority before examining into the 
ways by which they have arrived at their conclusions ; for 
the lack of acquired knowledge creates within them the 
good quality of sharp wit, and their very naturalness 
suggests to them a mode of reasoning which, if not strictly 
logical, will be found in the main to come so near the 



A FIRST- CLASS MOULDER. 9 

truth as to command the respect of those who are more 
thoroughly initiated. 

Pass through any one of our best foundries, and note 
the several moulders working at their respective jobs. To 
the casual observer everything appears to move along 
smoothly, suggestive of a complete mastery over all the 
complex and intricate problems to be solved in the con- 
struction of the several moulds ; in fact, it would appear 
anomalous to call them at all difficult when we observe the 
apparent ease with which they are accomplished. 

But we are much deceived if we imagine that this has 
always been the experience of the foundry in question. 
On making inquiry, we discover that present success is 
only the result of repeated trials in the past, actual failures 
discovering to the workman the need of greater care, or 
increased strength, etc., of the various parts of his mould; 
and it is not going too far to say that in many instances, 
when disaster has followed disaster, chance has come to 
their relief and opened up the way of success. 

The only men to-day who can claim the title of "first- 
class moulders" are they who, seeing the end from the 
beginning, pursue an intelligent course throughout the 
whole process of forming their moulds, and are able to 
give a reason for every move they make. 

The moulder must possess constructive ability of no 
mean order, as demands are made upon him in this par- 
ticular which call not only for sound practical experience, 
but for a mental development superior and only possible 
in such men as have determined to merit the title above 
mentioned, and studiously and zealously work to maintain 
such title. Not only ought the several branches of the 
trade — loam, green-sand, dry-sand, and core-making — be 
all equally mastered by him, but also the ability to produce 
the molten iron for the finished mould in such mixture and 
condition as will best serve the requirements of the case. 



10 TEE IRON-FOUNDER. 

How can any moulder claim to be "first-class" who 
cannot judge of the fitness of the cores supplied for his 
mould, and must in all cases trust to the core-maker, 
whose knoAvledge of the matter may be even less than his 
own, and very naturally so, too, when we consider that, 
from a misconception of the value and importance of that 
particular branch of the trade, even green laborers are per- 
mitted to produce such cores, — a simple case of the blind 
leading the blind, with the inevitable result of both falling 
into the ditch ? Nor would there be any justice in the 
claim for excellence made by any moulder skilled only in 
one department of his trade, to the exclusion of all the 
rest. 

The basis of excellence consists in the association of all 
the branches, inclusive of the cupola (last, but not least); 
and it is not too much to expect in these days, when 
the opportunities for the acquisition of knowledge are so 
plentiful, that a firpt- class moulder shall answer to the 
standard herein laid down. 

The really first-class moulder leaves nothing to chance, 
and, as before stated, " sees the end from the beginning," 
every step he takes in the prosecution of his work mani- 
festing a previous study of the science of his business. He 
knows that his sand is suitable, because, along with his own 
experience and observations, he has studied the subject 
thoroughly, and can tell beforehand what mixture he 
needs to bring the silica, alumina, etc., into correct propor- 
tions for the work in hand. 

The flasks and other rigging he makes will be reliable, 
because he will have made the necessary calculations as to 
the weight to be sustained and pressures to be resisted, 
and proportions his arrangements accordingly. The oft- 
repeated query of the foundry, "I wonder if this is strong 
enough ?" never enters his mind: he knows it is. 

Should it be required that a mould must be secured by 



A FIKST-CLASS MOULDER. 11 

weights, the first-class moulder never wonders how much 
weight he ought to place thereon. He has made a careful 
study of hydrostatics and kindred subjects, and applies the 
knowledge gained thereby to his every-day practice. By 
this means all the apparent mystery in moulding is made 
to vanish in a manner truly astonishing to his shop-mates 
who are so unfortunate as to have joined the " pooh-bah" 
association. 

To sum up, ignorance is at the bottom of all this so- 
called mystery in the foundry. I shall be amply repaid for 
this writing if I awaken in moulders a greater desire for 
knowledge than has manifested itself hitherto. It is fool- 
ish to say, as some do: " Oh, my education was very lim- 
ited," or, "I never went to school." To the former I say: 
Then finish your education now; and to the latter, Begin 
at once. Surely there is more pleasure in growing wiser, 
be it ever so slowly, than there is in remaining ignorant, 
only to be laughed at by the more ambitious ones around 
us. 

To the young men in our foundries I would say, Keep 
up your education by constant application to study. You 
need all the knowledge you can get to thoroughly under- 
stand your trade. Schools of instruction are becoming 
numerous all over the land, and must not be despised as 
means for culture in the trades. In these institutions in- 
telligent workmen may receive such instructions as will 
perfect their practical education and make them in every 
respect worthy the name of "first-class moulder." Lack- 
ing the opportunities of such schools, the moulder must 
make a school for himself. It is important to study. 
Where one studies is of minor importance. In these 
times, when opportunities for learning are more than 
plenty, there is no excuse for ignorance. 



12 THE IRON FOUNDER. 



EDUCATED MOULDERS. 

A MOKE SCIENTIFIC EDUCATION" NEEDED— GOOD WORKMEN 
MUST UNDERSTAND THEIR WORK IN ALL ITS DETAILS. 

Moulders need instruction in some of the parts which 
go to make up a purely "scientific" education, whether 
they are supposed to receive such an education or not. 

The science of figures, of geometry, of chemistry, and all 
knowledge which relates to these subjects, ought at least 
to be measurably known to every moulder who aspires to 
be recognized as an authority on foundry matters. 

Because a man has reached the age of twenty-five, or 
even forty-five, before he discovers this fact need not deter 
him from at once proceeding to rectify the mistake he has 
made; and, depend upon it, all that is required, even at the 
latter age, is a firm determination to make the future, in 
some measure at least, correct the errors of the past. 

Some one has said, "A good mathematician would make 
a good man at anything else he might essay to do." This 
is true, as it is impossible for any one to excel in the 
science who cannot concentrate his whole mind diligently 
on the one subject ; and any man who possesses this power 
of concentration need not hesitate about qualifying him- 
self in the branches of science before mentioned. 

Moulders need to bestir themselves in this matter ; for 
those who cannot read "drawings," for instance, however 
capable they may be in other respects, are being gradually 
relegated to the ranks of incapables. 

As well might we expect to see the draughtsman in- 
structing the pattern-maker from the drawing which he, 
the pattern-maker, ought to be able to read as that the 
pattern-maker should have to be sent for to instruct the 



EDUCATED MOULDERS. 13 

moulder in laying out his work — a truly sad sight in any 
foundry, when the nature of the case is fairly understood. 
The only man who can claim to be a thorough moulder, in 
this particular, is he who can "read" the drawing from 
which he is expected to work sufficiently well to enable 
him to accomplish his jobs without the aid of any one. 

There need be no hesitation about undertaking these 
studies on account of their seeming irksomeness, for, rest 
assured, once they are begun each exercise will furnish the 
desire for further effort. Nor is it to be thought that be- 
cause a man works hard ten hours a day that he is unfit 
for any further endeavor. I would say to such, that an 
hour or two, each evening, spent in the pursuit of knowl- 
edge would tend not only to the development of the mind, 
but of the body also. 

By such a course the mind, being fully occupied with 
these higher pursuits, disdains the grosser elements which 
have hitherto predominated there, and consequently the 
whole man is benefited mentally, physically, and morally. 

An almost universal complaint amongst moulders is 
" that the trade is a monotonous one/' To a great many 
this is strictly true, for the simple reason that they allow 
themselves to lapse into automatons, doing the same things 
every day with the same precision as the machinery around 
them, and with about the same amount of thought. 

They never share in the satisfaction which comes with 
the successful result of intelligent research and observa- 
tion, nor is it theirs to enjoy the practical demonstrations 
of the wonders of philosophy which are constantly taking 
place around them, giving a zest to toil which makes it at- 
tractive rather than monotonous. 

Moulders, arouse yourselves! Accept the means offered 
by the many institutions all around you. Teachers abound 
who, at reasonable salaries, would take charge of such 
mutual-improvement associations as might be formed in 



14 THE IRON-FOUNDER. 

direct connection with the trade-unions, thus making them 
benefit associations in more senses than one. 

In almost every city of note is now to be found a school 
of technology, to which all thoughtful moulders in the 
vicinity should attach themselves at once. 

Lastly, educational literature is now so very cheap that 
there is absolutely no excuse for ignorance. All may, if 
they will, become intelligent in the things pertaining to 
their trade, and thus make it a pleasure instead of a toil. 



APPRENTICESHIP BY INDENTURE. 

Ik discussing this subject I shall confine myself strictly 
to the trade of moulder, it being the trade with which I am 
most familiar. 

Writers in large numbers have come forward of late to 
explain the difficulties which beset the several trades and 
professions to which they belong, some arguing the justice 
and propriety of adopting the old and time-honored system 
of apprenticeship, whilst others, equally anxious for their 
individual welfare, have supported the doctrines of Dr. 
Adam Smith, who claimed that a long apprenticeship was 
unnecessary, even for the nicest mechanical arts ; the fal- 
lacy of which doctrine we shall endeavor to show, at least 
so far as it relates' to the trade of moulder. 

To such as are ignorant of the moulder's art, the whole 
business seems an unfathomable mystery, and even to such 
as have a superficial knowledge of the trade it is full of 
interest, ever growing, as one after another of the various 
processes are revealed, resulting in the finished work which 
they unfeignedly pronounce "admirable." 

Granting the above, it would appear that more than 



APPRENTICESHIP BY INDENTURE. 15 

an ordinary course of preparation is needed to make a 
thorough moulder; and when I say a thorough moulder, I 
mean all which the words imply, — not in any sense such a 
one as is generally understood. 

Usually it is said, "such a one is a good pipe-moulder," 
another is a " good plate-moulder," a " good column- 
moulder," or a " good propeller-wheel moulder," etc. ; but it 
must be borne in mind that very many of these are good only 
at such special work, and not in any sense master of that one 
job, for the very simple reason that all their manipulations 
are not based upon a thorough knowledge of the trade, but 
are mere acts of memory on their part, doing only that 
which they have seen done before by other men, thus enact- 
ing the part of the parrot — imitators. Such men are easily 
discovered, even when engaged on their specialties, for 
when anything occurs out of the ordinary line of their daily 
drudgery, something which calls for a different line of 
thought and action, they are at once confounded, and en- 
deavor to escape their dilemma by pronouncing the whole 
thing a " mystery," and "chancing" it — with the inevitable 
result of a bad casting. 

Now this state of things is not confined to one foundry : 
all have more or less of this incompetency to contend with; 
therefore all ought to be equally interested in finding a 
remedy for it. 

If we inquire into the status of the men above mentioned, 
we shall find that the majority of them have no claim to be 
called moulders, other than the fact that they had helped a 
moulder until they were twenty or twenty-five years old, 
after which the foreman or employer was prevailed upon 
to "give them a show;" the show is given, with the result 
as above stated. 

Hundreds of others assume the name of moulder, and 
assert their ability to perform any kind of work creditably 
and with dispatch; they back their assertions by informing 



16 THE IRON-FOUNDER. 

you that their trade was learned at a first-class establish- 
ment; upon these statements they are hired, and it seems 
incredible that such frauds as they prove themselves to be 
could have graduated from the firms they refer you to. 

The reason is plain, however: upon inquiry you discover 
that their boyhood was spent in one wild riot, the business 
they had engaged to learn being the last thing thought of 
by them ; and just here let me say that it is a very rare oc- 
currence to find our boys in full accord with their employ- 
ers after the novelty of initiation into the trade has passed: 
a spirit of distrust, which seems mutual, appears to pervade 
both sides. The boy, more or less under the evil influence 
of the ruder spirits around him, assumes an air of false in- 
dependence, and asserts that he is not being rewarded ac- 
cording to his deserts, threatens to leave, makes things 
generally uncomfortable for all concerned, and finally quits, 
to the infinite relief of everybody, without having acquired 
even the rudiments of the trade his parents were anxious 
for him to learn. On the other hand, it not unfrequently 
happens that a boy engages with some unprincipled em- 
ployer, whose only object is to get all he can out of him as 
long as the boy is willing to suffer the injustice; but just as 
soon as he rebels, his place is wanted for some other victim: 
this is a crying injustice, and calls for prompt redress. 

When all these and kindred evils are considered, is it 
any wonder that we have such an army of incompetents, 
who insist upon being recognized as moulders, and does it 
not behoove us as artisans to look for a remedy? I go fur- 
ther, and assert that this question of inferiority as moulders 
is becoming a national one, for are we not called upon to 
witness the superior skill of the strangers who come to 
make their homes amongst us ? 

Well, you say, what remedy do you suggest? I unhesi- 
tatingly answer, let us go back to the old method of ap- 
prenticeships by indent ure 3 which has proved to be the 



APPRENTICESHIP BY INDENTURE. 17 

only reliable safeguard against difficulties such as we have 
been describing. 

Justice and honor demand that we approach this subject 
unbiased, and with fairness to all concerned, — the boy, the 
parent, the employer, and last, but not least, the national 
credit. 

Some one says, Are there no good American moulders? 
There are some, but they are those whose boyhood days were 
watched over with deep solicitude by discerning parents 
or guardians, backed by a desire on the part of the em- 
ployers to do their full duty by the charge placed in their 
hands; thus in reality fulfilling every obligation which a 
sensible indenture would bind them to. 

Others again amongst us, whose claims for competency 
are well established, may not have had all the advantages 
of early training, but possessed of good natural ability, 
coupled with an indomitable will, they have determined to 
become thorough masters of the trade, and hesitating at no 
sacrifice which the urgency of the case demanded, they have 
pushed themselves to the front, and deservedly so; but 
these are a very small minority, and we feel assured that 
such men will heartily indorse any action which will insure 
an easier and surer way of lifting their fellow-men to the 
front ranks in their profession. 

It is urged by some of the opponents to the system of ap- 
prenticeship, that the institution interfered with the prop- 
erty which every man has or ought to have iu his own 
labor, and also that the object is to maintain a high rate of 
wages by stinting the number of persons who are engaged 
in the occupation. Dr. Adam Smith, above referred to, 
and some of his school, claimed that it not only interfered 
with the liberty of the workman, but also with that of such 
as may choose to employ him, who were the best qualified 
to judge of his ability. They further contend that such 
laws tended to restrain competition to a much smaller num- 



18 THE IRON-FOUNDER. 

ber than would otherwise enter a trade. They also limit 
the time necessary to learn such trades as watch and clock 
making to a few weeks, or even days. 

Whilst some of these arguments may seem feasible, there 
is to my mind a good deal of error running through the 
whole, specially the latter, in regard to length of time 
necessary to learn a trade, which is simply ridiculous. 

"Apprenticeship, in law, is a contract whereby one per- 
son, called the master, binds himself to teach and another, 
called the apprentice, undertakes to learn some trade or 
profession, and to serve his master some length of time." 

The object of the above is to secure for the apprentice 
such a degree of proficiency in his trade as will enable him 
to earn his living creditably, the only return for which is a 
certain stipulated time of servitude to the person engaged 
with. 

Let us look at some of the advantages this method offers 
to the boy. In the first place, allowing that the age of the 
boy is fourteen years, there is comparatively no difficulty 
in getting him into full sympathy with the agreement, 
whose conditions become part of his belief, and conse- 
quently part of himself; any irksomeness which might 
present itself to him is immediately dispelled when he re- 
members that his skill as a moulder is increasing as the 
years go by, thus creating an ambition to be esteemed a 
man and an artist when he shall have attained his major- 
ity. 

The advantages of a legal apprenticeship can only be 
fully appreciated by such as have passed through that de- 
gree of probation, especially when all the conditions have 
been met, mutually, by both parties to the contract. 

The method engenders a feeling of kind regard for each 
other, as it is always to the employer's interest to be kind 
to his apprentices, and take pride in watching their steady 
progress. 



APPRENTICESHIP BY INDENTURE. 19 

From experience, as well as from information carefully 
gathered, I am persuaded that a boy duly apprenticed re- 
ceives a greater share of the journeyman's sympathy and 
help than do those who are casually engaged to serve a full 
time or otherwise, as either or both shall determine. 

No moulder of good sound judgment and practical ability 
can pass through our foundries without being struck by the 
slipshod manner and methods the majority of our moulders 
exhibit in the use of their tools, a large number of which 
tools are practically useless to most of them, for the reason 
that their apprenticeship was neither long enough nor as 
thorough as it ought to have been, to acquire a nice artis- 
tic use of them. 

Who ever thinks of making a thorough musician of his 
boy, after allowing most of his young days to be spent at 
some hard calling, which demanded more than ordinary use 
of the hands ? After such training it would be impossible 
for the youth to adapt his fingers to the nice manipulation 
required to give due effect to string or key of the instru- 
ment chosen for him. And just so is it with regard to a 
moulder : a boy entering the trade in his early youth, under 
the favorable auspices mentioned above, attains to such a 
degree of proficiency in the use of his tools that nothing 
can deter him from turning out his work, stamped on 
every part with the mark of a true artist. 

The question may be asked, " Who will be the gainer by 
the adoption of a general system of lawful apprenticeship 
— the artisan or the employer?" I answer, both; and 
further, I claim that it would be productive of a better 
class of citizens, and therefore a national benefit. 

It seems to me that the moulders' unions could by a 
supreme effort become the pioneers in a movement which 
would bring about the above-mentioned reform, and I feel 
assured that no nobler object could possibly command their 
serious attention' at the present moment. 



20 THE IRON-FOUNDER. 

I am aware that it will be urged by some that it will 
tend to make the trade more exclusive; but that, I claim, is 
their right equally with the professions, who for very good 
reasons claim protection on account of the forced appren- 
ticeship to which they were subjected before they could 
obtain their diplomas. 

But does not the public gain by the system, inasmuch 
as they are protected against fraud and deception? And 
just so would employers be protected against incapable 
mechanics. This latter ought to commend itself to the 
earnest consideration of all employers, causing them to co- 
operate with the trades unions, with the view of establish- 
ing a sound system of apprenticeship. 

This done, I have no hesitation in saying that the next 
generation of moulders would verify all I have said on this 
subject, and prove themselves equal, if not superior, to any 
in the world. 



MOULDERS' TOOLS— THEIR USE AND THEIR . 

ABUSE. 

Some one has said that " neither wise men nor fools 
could work without tools," and again, that "the poor 
workman is always findiug fault with his tools;" but if 
his tools are the only things he assails, we may leave him 
to his quarrelling, and endeavor to do better ourselves by 
not only having the proper tools, but by having a full 
knowledge of their right use. 

By some it is thought that a moulder requires very few 
tools and that "few" of a very simple kind, and some 
moulders themselves boast of their ability to accomplish 
their work as well with a coat-pocket full of tools as 
others whose tool-chest is packed full of them; but if 



MOULDERS' TOOLS. 21 

these gentry are carefully watched it will be discovered 
that they are constantly borrowing from their neighbors 
to make up for their own deficiency. 

Another thing we may notice here is, that no small 
number of our so-called journeymen moulders really need 
but very few tools, never having learned the proper use 
of them all, in consequence of which their jobs are turned 
out by hand, so to speak : in other words, made as well as 
their hands and a big square trowel can make them — a 
disgrace to the man as well as to the foundry that employs 
him. 

It is my purpose herein to explain the simplest tools 
used in the trade, as I see almost every day a misuse made 
of them. 

The shovel, for instance, to some men's minds is a thing 
of very small importance; no attention is paid to keeping 
it clean and well trimmed: they seem to forget that such 
neglect makes it much harder to dig with, or to clean off 
a joint, and of course the lives of both man and shovel are 
materially shortened thereby. 

Brushes, riddles, sieves, and bellows are equally ill-cared 
for, with a similar result. I advocate the method of sup- 
plying each moulder with a full set of the articles above 
mentioned, holding him responsible for their safe keeping, 
and to be returned when he leaves. 

It is customary for firms to supply these articles; but, 
excepting the shovels, they allow only a limited number 
of the others for general use: this is a mistake. I have 
tried both plans, and always found the former to work 
most profitably. 

Clamps and wedges come under the head of tools 
supplied by the firm, and, simple though they seem, it is 
important that they be made correctly, otherwise disaster 
very frequently ensues. 

Clamps should always be made with the view of being 



22 THE IRON-FOUNDEM. 

strong enough to resist the pressure exerted by the mould 
they are intended to secure. Very often we find them 
made with the corners rounded, as shown at Fig. 1; this 
is wrong, inasmuch as it reduces the part which is called 
upon to bear the most strain to the weakest part of the 
clamp. 

Clamps should always be made after the manner shown 
at Fig. 2, especially such as are made of cast-iron. 

We come now to wedges, which ought, if possible, to 





Fig. 3. 




Fig. I. 



Fig. 2. 



Fig. 5. 



be made of wrought- iron, and fashioned as shown at 
Fig. 3, not as we frequently find them, as seen at Fig. 4. 

Those shown at Fig. 3 may be used two together for 
work requiring great security; Fig. 5 illustrates the 
method of using them; the others are simply valueless for 
critical jobs, and ought to be discarded. 

A screw-driver and wrench, if not supplied by the firm, 
should be purchased for private use by every moulder, 
the former being always at hand to loosen any part of 
a pattern that will facilitate the moulding of the job; 
whilst the latter will save hours of time and much dis- 



MOULDERS' TOOLS. 23 

appointment in hunting up the one belonging to the shop, 
which, strange to say, is always lost when wanted. 

To a careful moulder a pair of calipers is indispensable. 
How ridiculous the man appears when, upon trying off his 
cope, he finds more or less of his upper bearings crushed 
off on account of the cores being too large; or, opposite 
to this, when his casting is examined the core is found out 
of the centre, for the simple reason that his core was 
too small : either of which faults could have been avoided 
by a right use of the tool above mentioned! 

Parallel straight-edges, level, compasses, trammels, and 
square are usually supposed to be required by the loam- 
moulder only. I claim that every moulder should possess 
these tools, and what is more, he ought to make him- 
self acquainted with their uses; for he knows not when he 
may be called upon to demonstrate whether he knows his 
business fully or not. 

How simple one of our best green-sand moulders is made 
to appear when, if called upon to make plates or rings for 
the loam-moulder, he stands aside whilst the latter marks 
out the lines for his guidance! This ought to inspire 
every moulder to learn all of his trade, and save him the 
disgrace which such a thing subjects him to. 

For the guidance of such as are ignorant of, and desire 
to learn, the use of the above-mentioned tools, I will here 
describe the whole process of levelling a bed, and drawing 
thereon a simple job. 

Fig. 6 explains the process of laying down the straight- 
edges preparatory to making the sand-bed thereon. 

The straight-edge A is first set level in the floor, resting 
on each end only; straight-edge B is then set similarly, at 
the required width; the parallel straight-edge is set 
across the ends of both, as shown, and the end of B raised 
or lowered until the level shows it to be level with A ; the 
level is then placed lengthwise on B, and the opposite end 



24 



THE IRON-FOUNDER. 



regulated until B is level also. The straight edges are 
now secured, and the sand-bed prepared in such a mariner 
as will best suit the job as to depth and degree of hardness. 
We will suppose a plate is to be made square at the 
outer, and round at the inner edges, having six equal 
divisions drawn on the inner circle, one lug in the middle 
on each of the four sides, and four round holes in some 




Fig. 6. 



certain position cast in the body of the plate, as seen at 
Fig. 7. 

After setting in a centre-peg A, with small hole for the 
point of the trammel to work in, lay straight-edge B par- 
allel with the bed, and fair across the centre at A draw a 
line across, cutting the centre hole; then set the square G 
against the straight-edge, with the corner true to the cen- 
tre hole; keep the square exact in this position whilst you 
move the straight-edge and place it against the other side 
of the square, after which the square is removed and line 
D is drawn. You now have two centre-lines at right 



MOULDERS' TOOLS. 



25 



angles to each other, from which lines you must measure 
for width and length of plate outside. 

All that is now required for describing the four holes in 
the body of the plate is to ascertain their distance from the 
centre-lines, marking them off each way as shown at EE\ 
the intersecting point of these lines will be the centre 
of the holes required. 

Because the sides are all equidistant from the centre, 




Fig. 7. 

the centre-lines themselves give the position of the lugs as 
seen at F. 

All that now remains to be done is to set the trammels 
to the required radius and draw the circle, the six divi- 
sions of which are obtained by marking off the length 
of the radius used to draw the circle. Any number of 
divisions of the circle in this proportion can be got by sub- 
division of the six, as twelve, twenty-four, forty-eight, etc. 

It will be observed that the circle is divided in four 
by the centre-lines: subdivisions of these will give eight, 
sixteen, thirty-two, etc. To such as are scholars this 
short lesson will be uninteresting; but to others who are 



26 THE IRON-FOUNDER 

ignorant of geometry I say, Do not rest at this simple 
illustration; get books on the subject, and study hard: it 
will repay you. 

A small water-pot with neat swab is a useful adjunct to 
a moulder's outfit, providing it is used with discretion. A 
careful workman has one for his own private use, to stiffen 
an edge with where it is absolutely necessary; but should 
it be required to use more water than is good for the safety 
of the mould, he will see to it that the extra moisture is 
dried out before he casts, 

Not so the careless or the incompetent workman: he 
uses water to save labor in finishing, and should his cast- 
ing be measurably free from blisters and scabs, which 
is very rarely the case, it is certain that holes will be 
found in the upper surfaces, caused by the extraordinary 
amount of steam which is generated in such a damp mould, 
and which steam no ordinary amount of venting will carry 
away. 

This brings us to the subject of vent-wires and how 
to make them. Large vent-wires should always have 
the point made as shown at Fig. 8; this enlarged point 
enters the sand freely, making a hole larger than the body 
of the wire, which follows after without friction. Smaller 
wires only need to be filed square at the end, which should 
be jumped up a little by a few blows endwise; Fig. 9 gives 
an idea of what I mean. 

Gaggers may be considered moulders' tools, as they play a 
very important part in his work, very many castings being 
lost either from having too many or too few, or from 
not having the right kind. I have shown three kinds 
of gaggers at Figs. 10, 11, and 12. Where the amount of 
sand to be lifted is not too deep below the bars of the 
flask, Fig. 10 will serve the purpose. The principle 
involved is to secure, by ramming between the bars, the 
gaggers placed therein, so firmly that the weight of the 



MOULDERS' TOOLS. 



27 



hanging sand will not be sufficient to pull them out. 
Usually, when such is the case, recourse is had to chuck- 
ing; but very much of the wood used for this purpose may 
be saved by using the gaggers shown at Figs. 11 and 12. 
These hang on the bars of the flask, thus making failure 
to lift impossible. 

The subject of flasks is a very important one. A chapter 
has therefore been devoted to its discussion exclusively, 
to which I refer the reader, as I have treated that subject 



CSS3 



American Machinist 



Fig. 8. Fig. 9. 



Fig. 10. 



Fig. II. 



czz 



■:'\\w. aa 



Fig. 12. 



more fully there than I could be expected to in this 
writing. 

We will now consider the subject of ramming or packing 
the sand against the pattern. This is accomplished by 
tools called rammers, which rammers, if used properly, 
will not only prevent the casting from swelling out of 
shape, but will also save considerable finishing by the 
moulder. The wooden rammer shown at Fig. 13 is used by 
bench-moulders to ram small flasks and snaps with: this 
kind is preferred by most of them, because they can 
use one in each hand, if they choose, thereby materially 
lessening the length of time needed to ram up their flasks; 
but for general jobbing work, on the floor and in larger 



28 THE IRON-FOUNDER. 

flasks, it is necessary to have rammers suited to the height 
of the moulder who uses them, as he must invariably stand 






Fig. 13, Fig. 14. 

to his work. Fig. 14 shows the kind of rammer most 
suitable for floor work: it may be either double or single 



MOULDERS' TOOLS. 



29 



ended, the shank may be of piping with ends castor forged 
on, or the whole rammer may be forged solid. As stated, 
ramming is a very important operation, and the art should 
be learned thoroughly, as no amount of finishing will rec- 
tify faulty ramming. How often we see castings swelled 
in parts all along the side surfaces, or, if not swelled, 
blotches and scabs all over: both evils caused by inat- 
tention or inability, as the former results from ram- 







Fig. 15. 



ming too far away from the pattern, and the latter from 
ramming too close, — in all probability frequently striking 
the pattern with the rammer! 

Again, how many comparatively good castings are 
marred by the ugly seam running along just where the 
one course of ramming joins the other! 

By the use of Figs. 15 and 16 I shall endeavor to give a 
remedy for the evils spoken of. The figures show a round 
and square pipe or column bedded down in the floor or 
flask; it is at the joints A, A where the seams are formed, 
by continuing the ramming without first making the con- 



30 



THE IRON-FOUNDER. 



nection between the two layers of sand good and solid. 
This is remedied by laying down the facing-sand along 
the pattern, and carefully packing the joint with a smaller 
rammer made for the purpose, as seen at B, B, after 
which the facing can be pressed against the pattern, and 
backed with old sand ; the ramming can then be continued 
as shown at C, C, taking care to reach the bottom at each 
stroke, and never allowing the rammer to come closer than 
two inches from the pattern. 

We come now to the more artistic class of tools, such 
as are usually called -finishing-tools, a full set of which 







Fig. 16. 

it ought to be the pride of every moulder, man or boy, 
to possess. The square trowel, Fig. 17, first claims our 
attention, because it is the most used. Of these there 
should be four, from four inches to seven inches long, 
of suitable widths according to length; they should be 
stiff and unyielding, with an even surface on the face. 
This enables the moulder to retain a perfectly even surface 
on the face of whatever part of the mould he smooths with 
them. This is worth consideration; for, painful as it is to 
relate, a careful inspection of some of our best work will 
reveal some very ugly marks, caused by finishing such 
surfaces with old round-faced trowels. 

As these trowels wear down and become pliable they 



MOULDERS' TOOLS. 



31 



are invaluable on curved surfaces, especially for loam 
and dry-sand work. Fig. 18 shows bow such tools may be 



flCD 




Fig. 17. 



Fig. 18. 



used, the trowel being bent to suit the contour of an elbow- 
pipe. 

One heart-trowel of good size, Fig. 19, will be found use- 
ful, as the point enables you to reach places impossible of 
access by the square trowel. 

Fig. 20 shows a combination of heart and square, — a very 




Fig. 19. 



Fig. 20. 



useful tool in good hands, and one which may be made to 
do good service. 

I have many reasons for saying " careful " in reference 
to the use of moulders' tools of all descriptions; for I am 
sorry to say that very many of our moulders, when they 
obtain a very handy tool, take infinite delight in smooth- 
ing away on the surface which it fits, either heedless or 



32 



THE 1R0N-F0UNDEB. 



ignorant of the fact that by so doing they work the moist- 
ure,, mixed with more or less clay, to the front. By and 
by this clayey surface clings to the tool and comes away 
in patches; the ignorant moulder then proceeds to fill 



Fig. 21. 

up the bad spots with his trowel, smoothing it on the 
whole surface indiscriminately, good and bad spots alike; 
the pressure he exerts to press in this sand loosens the 




Fig. 22. 

already overworked surface, which yields to the first touch 
of the molten iron, and an unsightly scar is the con- 
sequence. But irrespective of the above, it must be 





Fig. 23. 

remembered that the hard clayey surface caused by over- 
smoothing with the tools' expands as soon as the molten 
iron reaches it, and this expansion not being equal all over 



MOULDERS 1 TOOLS. 



33 



the surface, but by degrees as the mould fills up, the skin 
of the mould buckles, causing a very unsightly as well 
as undesirable surface on the casting. 




Fig. 24. 

Lifters shown at Fig. 21 ought to range from a quarter 
of an inch in width about six inches long, and advance in 
size by eighths up to two inches wide, lengths to suit. A 






Fig. 25. 



Fig. 26. 



Fig. 27. 



very necessary adjunct to the lifter is the web-smoothers, 
shown at Figs. 22 and 23: these should be made to match 
the lifters as nearly as possible; they can be either cast or 





Fig. 28. 



Fig. 29. 




Fig. 30. 



forged in the form shown at Fig. 22, or threaded shanks 
of different lengths and stiffness can be procured, on which 
loose ends may be screwed (Fig. 23). The latter method is 



34 



THE IRON-FOUNDER. 



very advantageous, as almost every variety of tool may be 
cast at a slight cost; another advantage is that they are 
much less bulky than those which are forged or cast in one 
piece. These tools serve a good purpose, as they enable 
the moulder to finish the bottom of a web with dispatch, 
and with greater nicety than it would be possible to do 
with the lifter alone. 

Bead and flange tools, such as shown at Fig. 24, may 
be cast in one piece, or the ends may be loose, as just 
described. 

Figs. 25 and 26 show smoothers with two faces at right 






Fig. 31. 



Fig. 32. 



Fig. 33. 



angles to each other; one is concave and the other convex. 
These tools should only be used to give the final touch at 
the corners, after the mould has been made perfectly true. 

Figs. 27 and 28 represent a set of flute tools, the one at 
28 reaching the outer edge and a part of the curve on each 
side, the one at 27 finishing the curve. 

Again, let me say that it is very tempting, especially to 
youth, to overwork the mould with these tools, they run 
along so easily, also avoid all smoothing until the faces have 
been well secured, and then do no more of it than is abso- 
lutely necessary. 

Smoothers, such as shown at Fig. 29, are made of differ- 
ent sizes to fit all diameters of pipes, columns, etc. The 



MOULDERS' TOOLS. 



35 



one shown at Fig. 30 is similar to Fig. 25, excepting that 
one of its sides is circular, and serves to smooth a corner, 
one side of which is flat and the other round. This class 
of tool may be made to any angle or shape required. 




Fig. 34. 

Fig. 31 shows the form of tool required to fit the bends 
of elbow-pipes, etc., and needs to be of several sizes to suit 
the diameter of pipe : for this purpose they are best egg- 
shaped, as seen; for globes, the outer edge must be made 
to a true circle. 

Figs. 32 and 33 are simply modifications of the one seen 
at Fig. 22, any number of which may be made, in cast-iron 
or brass, to fit the job. 




Fig. 35. 



In conclusion, let me draw the attention of the moulder 
to another class of tools, the cheapest of all, but, if rightly 
used, the most productive of real artistic work. I mean 
strips of wood to be used for re-forming the broken sur- 
faces, too frequently seen in the mould when a bad pattern 
is drawn from the sand, or when a bad lift occurs in the 
cope. 

A simple example will best serve the purpose of illustra- 
tion. Suppose Fig. 34 to represent the surface required, 



36 



THE IRON FOUNDER. 



but the edge at A is broken, as seen at Fig. 35 ; never 
make the attempt to repair such a job by patching with 
the tool after the manner shown at Fig. 36, but have along 




Fig. 36. 



strip made the correct depth of the return, set it against 
the edge, as seen at Fig. 37, and make the corner good all 
along, after which the requisite tools may be used to finish 
with, and a true mould will result. 




Fig. 37. 

The above-described method of finishing put into general 
practice will not only secure the best work, thereby gaining 
distinction for the moulder, but will also facilitate produc- 
tion to a very appreciable extent, thus making it better for 
all parties concerned. 



FOUNDRY FLASKS OR BOXES. 



37 



FOUNDRY FLASKS OR BOXES. 



Flasks or moulding-boxes in which the patterns are 
rammed are made with the view of confining the amount 
of sand to be used to its smallest limit, consistent with 
safety, and should be made of such dimensions as will 
allow of the rammer being used at the distance of from 
2 inches to 3 inches from the pattern. If made of wood, 
there must be a sufficient body of sand between the cast- 
ing and flask to prevent damage from burning. On this 
account iron flasks (as a rule) can be made much smaller, 
thereby saving time and labor in filling in. 

Fig. 38 shows a 14-inch iron flask for small work, and 




Fig. 38. 

where a large quantity of machinery small work is made, 
such flasks are much superior to wooden ones. Having no 
bars top or bottom, they are readily rammed and closed, two 
clamps being sufficient to bind them together for casting. 

But when there comes a job-requiring large numbers 
of extra-light castings, the sand can be rammed in a snap 
flask, in the same manner as in the iron one and when 



38 



THE 1R0NF0UNDER. 



the mould is closed the flask can be loosened off and the 
sand cope held down by a flat weight heavy enough to 
resist the pressure when cast, a hole being cast in the 
weight to expose the runner or gate. Such a flask is 
shown at Fig. 39. The hinges and latches are seen at 
opposite corners, the other corners being bolted or screwed 
fast. The great advantage in this kind of flask (where it 
can be used with safety) is the number of iron or wood 




Fig. 39. 

flasks it saves, as well as the rapidity with which it can be 
worked. 

Fig. 40 is a perspective view of a 24-inch flask. As will be 
seen, this method does away with the necessity for either 
clamps, boards, or plates, the bottom or drag part, as seen 
at Fig. 41, having flat bars cast on. The intermediate 
parts or cheeks can be made of any depth required. The 
pin-holes being bored to templet insures a fit, no matter 
which parts are used. The flask shown has cheek 12 inches 
deep; others can be made of different depths, enabling 
the moulder to rig up a part flask to suit his job in very 
short order, nothing being required but the pins and keys, 
which must be kept in order by some responsible man, 
who will see that they are taken out and stored when not 
in use. Internal flanges may be cast on the bottom edge 



FOUNDRY FLASKS OB BOXES. 39 

of the cheeks to suit the kind of work they may be used 
for. For general jobbing purposes this method of making 

Fig. 40. 




Fig. 41. 

flasks is good, for, though a little expensive at first, they 
pay well in the end. 



40 THE IRON-FOUNDER. 



LARGER FLASKS, COPES, ETC. 

At Fig. 42 a 4-foot cheek part 12 inches deep is shown, 
with internal flange to carry grates, which may he made 
to fit any form of pattern, as shown at A and B, the grate 
in the former fitting a circle, the latter being square, such 
as would be required for tanks, etc. The lugs are strong 
and the bolt-holes are cast in; but the holes for pins must 
be drilled to templet, so that any cheek may be used for 
cope or drag. The half-inch strips cast on the edges give 
strength sufficient for this sized flask, and are more easily 
made than flanges. The lugs must be rammed in a core 
and bedded against the pattern, and care must be taken 
to have the holes for bolts made right and left. The 
internal flange adds strength to the flask, and enables the 
moulder to rig np for any kind of job at no greater ex- 
pense than a few grates. 

At Fig. 43 I have shown the way to make the cope and 
drag; the notches in the bars will be appreciated by job- 
bing moulders particularly. A shows bar for cope, and B 
for drag. Where it is practicable, wrought-iron swivels 
can be cast in, as shown at C, Fig. 42; but if swivels must 
be cast-iron, let them be strong, as shown at (7, Fig. 43. 

It would be preposterous for me to lay down rules for 
lifting and handling flasks which would be applicable to 
all shops; but I show at Fig. 43 two other methods for 
lifting purposes, besides the swivels. The one at D is a 
cast handle made in a core, and set against the pattern 
when the flask is made; of course wrought-iron may be 
substituted, which is better. At E is shown a plain lug, 
into which, when needed, the ring-bolt F can be made 
fast. The latter is very simple, and can be made of 
universal application. Fig. 44 gives plan of a plain cope 
for floor uses (without flange top or bottom) 8 feet square; 



FOUNDRY FLASKS OR BOXES. 



41 



it has 15-inch square hole in centre. This flask must be 9 
inches deep and 1 inch thick on the outside and £ inch in the 

Fig. 42. 




Fig. 43, 

bars. Staking pieces can be cast on, as shown at G, Fig. 43. 
Let the cross on tie-bars be placed as seen. The reason 
for sides and bars being so near alike in thickness is that 



42 THE IRON-FOUNDEB. 

the expansion and contraction whilst the box is in use 
may be kept as near alike as possible all over. The 
arrangement of cross-bars is intended to counteract in 
some measure the inequalities of the thrust, giving, as 
they do, elasticity to the structure. A box of this kind, 
cast with good strong iron, will outlast any other kind 
that is made for floor purposes. When the sides are made 
heavy, with flanges, etc., cast to their bars, you may look 
out for a broken box before it has been in use very long. 



FLASKS MADE UP OF LOOSE SIDES, ENDS, AND BARS. 

Fig. 45 is a view of sides, ends, and bar for a flask 5 feet 
wide by 8 feet long and 12 inches deep. As in this case 
all the parts may be cast in open sand, a very large flask 
may be strongly made at a light expense comparatively. 
It will, of course, be readily seen that (if boxes must be 
made to fit the job and save labor in moulding) unless 
some other plan be adopted than to make them all in one 
piece, the foundry would soon be full of unwieldy flasks, 
costing considerable time and money to make. It is to 
overcome this difficulty that the method shown at Fig. 
45 is brought into use. It will be seen at A that the bars 
can be cast to fit any form of pattern; the sides can be 
made to bolt together as cope and nowel, holes for pins 
being drilled as shown at B and C ; the flanges can be 
bracketed to any required degree of strength. Let the 
flanges stand in from the edge of side J inch so as to leave a 
space of \ inch when they come together, into which mud 
can be pressed to prevent running out. The end shown 
is for a wrought swivel D, which is secured by a key as 
seen at E. Should the box be very wide, and require to 
be turned over on the swivels, the ends can be still farther 
stiffened, as shown at F. At G I have shown another 
method, which saves bolting of all the bars; this method 



FOUNDRY FLASKS OR BOXES. 



43 



necessitates the casting of pockets on the sides to receive 
the end of a plain bar, as shown at 1. These pockets are 
made wide enough to admit of the projection 2 sliding in 




easily; when the bar rests on the bottom this projecting 
piece is opposite the recess cast in the pocket to receive 
it, and is driven home by the bent iron 3. This iron or 



44 THE IRON-FOUNDEU. 

wedge is a plain piece of wrought-iron 1 j inch wide by \ inch 
thick, bent as seen, and. driven down so that the bar is 
pressed close into the groove; by leaving this wedge stand- 
ing f inch ont at the top it can be quickly knocked out and 
the bar loosened instantly. This is a very quick method, 
and only requires a long bolt here and there along the 
length to make it equal, in strength, to the other. Another 
advantage where pockets are cast to receive the bars is 
shown at H t as on a pinch wooden bars may be substituted 
for iron ones and made fast with wooden wedges. 

FLASKS MADE OF WOOD. 

Where wooden flasks can be profitably used, good white- 
pine should be chosen to make them of, as it outlasts any 
other kind and keeps its shape best. Ordinarily they may 
be made up to 3 feet square out of 2-inch lumber; beyond 
that size and up to 6 feet it is best to use 3-inch. Many firms 
go to great expense in dovetailing the joints, — a very bad 
method too, as the vent blazes out at the joints of the 
dovetail, and the flask is rendered useless in a very short 
time. A much better plan is to let the ends into the sides 
about J inch and nail them firmly together, after which a J- 
inch bolt can be passed through each end in the inside. If 
the flasks be long, additional bolts may be passed through 
in the middle. Greater dependence can be placed on the 
bolts than on any system of dovetail or spikes. 

I have seen many plans for preserving the joints of 
wooden flasks (which, if unprotected, soon burn away), and 
in most cases the supposed cure has proved worse than the 
disease; but should it be considered worth while to pro- 
tect the edge (and I am satisfied that it is, where the 
flasks are in constant use), have strips of cast-iron made 
£ inch thick and the width of the lumber, with pins cast on. 
Have these strips drilled with countersunk holes for screw- 



FOUNDRY FLASKS OR BOXES. 45 

heads, and set them hard down on a coat of thick metallic 
paint. This makes the joint between the iron and wood 
perfectly air-tight, preventing the gas from escaping, and 
consequently the flask is saved from burning. I have 
rigged flasks this way which have been in use every day 
for months without taking any harm from the blaze at the 
joint. 

Another thing I would suggest, where wooden flasks 
are in constant use: have a boy, or two, if need be, to 
throw water around the flasks as they are poured; it pays 
in the end to do this. Sometimes, in shops where help is 
scarce and the crane untrustworthy, it is out of the ques- 
tion to make large iron flasks. In such cases let cast-iron 
ends be made with good bolting surface for the wood to 
bind against; have also here and there a cast bar to which 
the side must be firmly bolted. These precautions add 
very little to the weight, but serve to increase the strength 
and usefulness of the flask. Swivels or handles cast on 
plates can be bolted on the sides or ends, making them in 
every respect almost equal to the best iron flask. 

HINGED FLASKS. 

Although to show the substitution of hinges for pins in 
moulding-boxes is the primary object of this article, I was 
necessarily led into other important subjects in connection 
with their use. My experience has taught me, that in the 
majority of foundries all the ingenuity of the moulder is 
expended in devising methods that will enable him to 
mould nearly every large green-sand casting in the floor. 
This is generally done with the view of saving cost of 
flasks, and when only one or two such castings are needed, 
I believe it is the correct thing to do. But other reasons 
are advanced for this almost universal bedding-in system, 
the foremost of which is, that it is the safest plan to adopt 



46 THE IRON-FOUNDER. 

when the job to be made is one of great magnitude; and, 
while I partly admit the force of such a reason, yet I am 
fully persuaded that much better results are assured by 
adopting a system which can be made equally safe, and at 
the same time enable the moulder to examine and finish 
all the parts of his mould with equal facility. It is well 
known that very many large jobs having critical parts are 
made in dry sand or loam for no other reason than to 
secure a well-finished casting, which could not result if it 
was made in green sand by the ordinary methods, on ac- 
count of the difficulty of reaching its remote parts. If 
such extra expense in the production of these castings can 
be saved, it must surely be folly to persist in such a course. 
Enter almost any foundry and examine such castings as 
we are speaking of, and the ugly fact of smooth upper sur- 
faces, and equally rough and unsightly lower surfaces pre- 
sents itself. To particularize, let it be an architectural 
works or a foundry making casting for tool and engine 
work : what do we find ? As before stated, all the in- 
genuity possible has been expended to have castings made 
in the floor, without separation of parts. Brackets are 
made in cores and rammed against the pattern, leaving in 
almost every case an unsightly mark, if not something 
worse; chipping faces and mouldings are pinned on loose, 
to be withdrawn after the pattern has left the sand, and as 
a natural consequence portions of the face of the mould 
are disturbed and fall into the bottom, or, worse still, are 
forced away when the iron enters the mould and rise to the 
surface. And yet, inconsistent as it may seem, the great- 
est care is taken with the very small surface which can be 
reached by the moulder to make that as smooth as tools 
and hands can make it; which, by the way, only shows up 
all the more by comparison the deficiencies of those parts 
of the mould which cannot be reached. This is seen more 
particularly on square and rectar,<gular columns, having 



FOUNDRY FLASKS OR BOXES. 



47 



two or more face sides, with panels and other ornamenta- 
tion; lathe beds, foundations for engines, etc. 

Some firms desiring quality rather than quantity partially 
overcome this difficulty by lifting out the sides of the 
mould, when practicable, on drawbacks, which are plates 
bedded alongside the pattern, and partings made where 




Fig. 46. 

requisite. After the mould is rammed and the pattern 
taken out, then such portions of the mould as rest on the 
plates can be lifted away; but this method necessitates still 
more digging and ramming, and of course adds to the cost 
whilst it is oftentimes but a sorry makeshift. 

It is to facilitate the making of such castings that 
prompts me to suggest the use of hinges. Fig. 46 is a 



48 THE IRON-FOUNDER. 

perspective view of the mould of an ordinary square col- 
umn, the dimensions of which are 18 inches X 18 inches X 
12 feet, with panels on three sides. I have shown the 
mould as cut across at the first hinge, so that the working 
parts can be seen. The cheeks are thrown back on the 
hinges A, the top flange resting on lugs B, exposing the 
core G its full length, as well as the bottom of the mould 
D. It will be plain to any one having a knowledge of such 
matters that all the parts of such a mould can be treated 
with the same care, the result being a casting equally per- 
fect all over. 

At Fig. 47 I have shown the necessary appliances for 
making castings by this method, and as this view is drawn 
isometrically, the whole details can be seen at a glance 
much more readily than would be possible by the ordinary 
.plan and elevation. Only a section of the sides is shown, 
but this is all that is needed for a clear understanding of 
the whole. I have selected a square column of the dimen- 
sions specified, because it is a class of work which is going 
on all the time, and serves well to illustrate the method 
suggested. 

As I do not in this article propose to explain the details 
of moulding such a casting, I shall confine myself to the 
subject of hinges and the securing of the flask. The bot- 
tom flask A is shown longer than the cheeks, as it is sup- 
posed to be a fixture in a foundry exclusively engaged in 
this work. It is best to have such a bottom flask made 
with deep sides well down in the floor, and good stiff 
cross-bars bolted across; such a bottom flask serves to 
make ordinary columns or beams and girders in, the cope 
of course being made to correspond with flange at B, to 
which it can be bolted or clamped, thus saving both time 
and expense of weighing down. It is on just such a flask 
that these sides rest. The lower half of hinge C, into which 
the upper half works, serves the same purpose for the 



FOUNDRY FLASKS OR BOXES. 



49 



regular cope when the bottom is being used for ordinary 
work ; but in this case, when the cheeks are being used, 




the cope can be pinned or iron slides bolted on to fit 
the recess shown at E, At F is shown the lifting-plates 



50 



TEE IRON-FOUNDER. 



secured to the cheeks. These plates serve the double duty 
of stiffening the cheek as well as carryiDg the sand, and 
may, of course, be taken into consideration when the mould 
is being bound together. By referring to G, it will be seen 
how the cheek is turned on its hinges, and without giving 
dimensions it will suffice to say that one or more of these 
lugs may be used, according to the length of the cheek, 
and also that they must be made with leverage sufficient 




Fig. 48. 

to turn backward and forward easily. The lug shown at 
H is for binding purposes. Let as many of these be cast 
on the bottom flange, to correspond with similar ones on 
the cope, as may be considered necessary for effectually 
securing the mould when closed. Holes must be cast in 
these lugs large enough to admit a strong bar reaching 
from one to the other — as shown at Fig. 48 — and wedged 
firmly between the bar and cheek. Sometimes it may not 
be required to use any ends to the job in hand; if so, bolt 



FOUNDRY FLASKS OR BOXES. 



51 



holes cast in the sides at each end can be utilized when the 
way is clear, for the bolt or provision can be made for bolt- 
ing on loose ends as seen at I, Fig. 47. 



-1 







Fig. 49. 



Fig. 50. 



k — -1— J — 9" , i ! vj 





Fig. 51. 



Fig. 52. 



Should it be required to lift away the end as well as 
sides of the mould, this may readily be done by continuing 
one cheek round- the ends to meet the other, or carry one 



52 THE IRON-FOUNDER. 

half on each; hut if the joh in hand he too unwieldy for 
such a method, as for instance tanks, hot-wells, cisterns, 
etc., of large dimensions, then, of course, separate cheeks 
can be made and turned back on their own hinges. To 
bind such ends provision can be made to bolt them to the 
cheeks when they are turned into place, or they can be 
treated the same as directed for the cheeks. 

At Figs. 49, 50, 51, and 52, I have shown front and side 
elevations of both halves of a hinge suitable for the job 
described, with figured dimensions. This hinge is certainly 
the best as well as the cheapest that can be made, requir- 
ing no machinist work on it whatever; it is ready for use 
as soon as it leaves the sand. It is an absolute fit, cannot 
get out of order, and must therefore commend itself 
especially to foundries having no machine-shop. In con- 
clusion, a hinge like this can be almost universally applied 
on ordinary work where the lifts are not too deep, or the 
parts of the mould too high to clear as it closes on the 
circle. It will save considerable to a firm using large 
numbers of top and bottom flasks. 



FOUNDRY OVENS. 

To properly locate a foundry oven is a very important 
item in foundry construction, for many reasons. 

Too frequently we find that no attention has been given 
this subject until the foundry has been built, and then it 
is placed in one corner of the shop, thereby limiting the 
floor-space considerably, as well as making that particular 
spot very undesirable to work near during the warm 
months. 

When it can be done, which is nearly always, it is best to 
have the oven outside, so that the doors will come even 



FOUNDRY OVENS. 53 

with the inside of the wall, and in such a position as will 
permit a straight track to be laid directly under one or 
more of the cranes. 

Another important consideration is what kind of an 
oven to build. I must say it would seem that very little 
attention is paid to this part of the subject, for, go where 
you will, you find that the universal idea is to have a hole 
of some kind, with a very indifferent carriage, requiring 
ten times the help to move in and out that it ought to, on 
account of the disgraceful roadway provided for it to travel 
on. 

The same may be said in regard to the methods of firing 
such ovens, "any way" being considered " good enough," 
providing the cores or moulds are dry "some time." 

The thought that, by a judicious arrangement of these 
things, both time and money, as well as considerable annoy- 
ance, might be saved to all concerned, does not enter the 
mind of the originator; and so he pursues his way blindly, 
supposing that he is saving money for the firm by with- 
holding the cost necessary for alteration. 

When an oven is to be built, care should be taken that 
it will meet all the requirements of the shop, both as to 
size and equipment. 

Should an oven be required for a very small foundry, it 
is just probable that one or more of the very excellent 
rotary ovens now on the market will suffice, and be as 
cheap as anything which could be erected by the owner; 
but should it be that the amount of cores required are but 
few and small, a very cheap and handy device is to make 
cast or wrought iron sides and back the required width 
and height, the sides to be provided with slides at suitable 
intervals on which to rest the shelves. The top must be 
provided with a hole having a raised edge, on which a 
piece of stove-pipe may be fitted; the front must be hinged 
on full size, so as to expose all parts of the oven at once. 



54 THE IRON-FOUNDM. 

An ordinary fire-pot, with provision for draught under- 
neath, can be set down in the floor and the oven set over, 
or the whole may be built within the plates, as shown at 
Fig. 57. 

Extemporized ovens of this class are very useful, even in 
large foundries, sometimes, especially when small cores are 
needed through the day. They save the annoyance and 
loss caused by opening the large ovens, thereby allowing 
heat to escape, materially retarding the drying of the 
moulds. 

For large foundries something more elaborate is neces- 
sary. If the business of the firm is a special one, with the 
same routine of work every day, it is well worth the time 
to consider what is needed to facilitate the rapid handling 
and drying of the cores and moulds. 

The kind of furnace and its position, the place for the 
damper, and how to use it to get full duty from the fuel, 
are subjects worthy of consideration; also, how to regulate 
the damper in order to allow of the free exit of the vapor 
made during the process of drying, without interfering 
with the legitimate draught required to bring out the best 
results from the fuel used. These and kindred subjects 
should interest the moulder whose aim is to excel in these 
things. 

If the oven is intended for jobs that will require more 
than one night to dry them, it will be proper to set the 
furnace or furnaces so as to allow of easy access without 
disturbing the doors and allowing the heat to escape. To 
meet this requirement, pits must be made, at the most con- 
venient places outside the oven, to communicate with the 
inside by a fire-place, which can be built of fire-brick, either 
level with the floor or as much above as will allow of easy 
access from inside as well as outside. The regulation bear- 
ers and grate-bars can be used in the construction, and a 
front erected on the outside with doors after the manner 



FOUNDRY OVENS. 



55 



of an ordinary boiler-furnace. The pit in this case should 
not be less than 18 inches below the grate-bars, with ample 
room on all sides for firing and cleaning. 




Fig. 53. 

For an oven 12 feet by 10 feet, and 10 feet high, one 
such furnace will suffice if its dimensions are 4 feet by 3 
feet, and 1 foot 8 inches deep. For rapid drying in larger 
ovens another furnace will invariably be required. 

One great objection to this method of firing is that the 



56 THE IRON-FOUNDER 

heat is not evenly distributed, some of the moulds or cores 
being in a semi-green state, whilst others are burnt so 
much as to be almost useless. To overcome this, recourse 
has been had to several ingenious methods to secure a more 
even distribution of the heat. One is to build flues which 
pass under the floor only in some instances, and others 
have continued the system along the walls and roof. 

I remember when we thought all trouble of the kind 
above mentioned would cease after we had laid down a 
perforated floor; but, as in the former case, it was a com- 
parative failure, inasmuch as we did not obtain the maxi- 
mum amount of heat, nor was it evenly distributed ; the 
extra heat at the end nearest the fire burnt out, and de- 
stroyed the castings so much as to make the arrangement 
almost valueless. 

For all ovens where one night's firing is all that can be 
allowed, the method shown in the accompanying figures is 
the most effective as well as the cheapest, because, whether 
one or more furnaces are needed, they can be so placed as to 
be equidistant from the walls all round, thereby giving an 
almost uniform heat all through, at least as near as is prac- 
ticable with open fires. I shall not dwell here on the pos- 
sibilities for heating where there are good supplies of natu- 
ral gas at a cheap rate; but it will be clear to all that the 
advantages which such offers ought to be made the best of. 

Neither is it required at this writing that I should enter 
into a description of all the elaborate systems of drying by 
the use of hot air and superheated steam : these methods 
are only to be thought of where there is not only the de- 
mand for such immense outlay, but likewise the necessary 
genius to adopt them. I have no doubt whatever that if 
our foremen founders were better posted in such matters 
and able to make themselves understood, employers would 
be led to make vast improvements in their working plant, 
as well to their credit as to their profit. 



FOUNDRY OVENS. 57 

In laying down an oven track be sure and have it as 
wide as the oven will allow; this gives stability, and allows 
for a good-sized carriage, which is a desideratum. But a 
good carriage is terribly marred by having an insufficient 
roadbed. 

The best roadbed for an oven is made by good longi- 
tudinal timbers crossed by 12-inch by 4-inch I-beams — 
wrought-iron — on which the ordinary steel rails can be 
bolted. Ovens should not be made any higher than is ab- 
solutely necessary; the fuel needed to heat this extra space 
being so much wasted. 

Where there is to be continuous firing, either hard or 
soft coal, of a medium size and good quality, may be used ; 
but if all the coal needed is to be put on at once, then it is 
preferable that hard coal only should be used. 

I would here say that it pays to have a man of more than 
the common run of intelligence to look after the firing of 
foundry ovens; much may be saved by such a man. He 
will acquaint himself with all their peculiarities, especially 
how to meet the various changes of the wind, etc., which 
of course affects the draught very materially, a full knowl- 
edge of which will enable him to guard against a very com- 
mon occurrence, — either that the cores or moulds are not 
dried sufficiently, or that they are burnt so as to be use- 
less. 

By a careful observation as to the condition of the cores 
every morning, he will be able to modify his fire to suit the 
amount of drying to be done. If he finds that the walls 
and upper surfaces of the cores are covered with moisture, 
he will at once know that there has not been a sufficient 
allowance of draught made for the escape of the vapor; but 
he knows also that if he should open his damper too much 
to meet this evil, he encounters one equally as damaging, 
which is, that too free an egress for the vapor will carry 
along with it the heat also; the fires will burn too rapidly, 



58 



THE IROJST-FO UNDER. 



and the result will be even worse than before. He will 
take a middle course as near as possible. 




These are only some of the things which will come under 
the observation of a good man in such a position; his use- 



FOUNDRY OVENS. 



59 



fulness will manifest itself in countless other ways, always 

proving the advisability of preferring such a man, even at 

an advanced rate of wages, to men of only ordinary calibre. 

The oven and carriage shown in the accompanying fig- 




ures were built for the production of column cores, round 
and square. I desired that none of the principles herein 
set forth should be violated ; it was my aim to occupy as 
much of the space as was practicable without in any sense 
marring the usefulnesss of the oven for any other purpose 
for which I might require it in the future. 



60 



THE IRON-FOUNDER. 



The dimensions are 16 feet wide, 25 feet long, and 12 
feet high; the walls are 16 inches thick, with roof com- 
posed of arches springing from seven 12-inch I-beams. 

Figs. 53 and 54 are end and side sectional elevations of 
oven and carriage racks, etc. ; Figs. 55 and 56 are views of 
details. 

This oven is heated by two furnaces, AA, Figs. 53 and 54, 
which are 4 feet long, 3 feet wide, and 16 inches deep, re- 
spectively. 

A continuous flue BB, Figs. 53 and 54, commencing 6 feet 




Fig. 56 



from door at C, Fig. 54, the same width as the furnaces, 
and 3 feet deep, running the whole length of the oven and 
out at the other end, supplies the draught, the damper 
being in the chimney at E. 

The damper shown regulates combustion admirably, and 
allows for the minimum amount of coal to thoroughly dry 
all the cores up to 12 inches thick, without in any sense 
injuring such as are smaller. 



FOUNDRY OVENS. 



61 



The carriage, us will be seen, is a plain one, put together 
in sections, and travels on a track 7 feet 10 inches wide; 
its length is 20 feet, and it stands 2 feet 2 inches from the 
floor; the side supports and upper frame, made in sections 
also, raises the platform, or table, FF, Figs. 53 and 54, 6 
feet from the floor; this platform is 23 feet long and 9 feet 




Fig. 57. 



4 inches wide, made in sections, with edges and one side 
planed true, and bolted firmly on the upper frame so as to 
form a perfectly even and smooth surface, on which almost 
any kind of rectangular core may be made by the use of a 
pair of sides and ends only. 

The uprights which support the table may be utilized 
for carrying cores by casting holes in them, through which 
eye-bolts may be secured. In these eyes racks may be 
made to turn either to the inside, as shown at G, Figs. 53 



62 THE IIION-FOVNDER. 

and 54; or they may remain parallel with the carriage, as 
seen at H, Fig. 54; or brought outwards, as necessity occurs. 

An isometric view of the rack is shown at Fig. 56. 

Not desiring to limit the width of the oven by building 
in the walls stationary rack fixtures, — which are never the 
right distance between, — I succeeded in contriving a rack 
which answers admirably. As will be seen, the whole con- 
sists of nine fixings on each side of the oven, built firmly 
in the wall, parallel and straight with each other; in the 
projecting ends of the bottom fixings a cup is cast, in 
which rest the 9 bars 3 inches in diameter and 9 feet long, 
held in position above by other fixings, built in the wall, 
with the projecting ends open, provided with a key-way 
with which to secure the shaft after all the arms have been 
slipped on. 

The whole arrangement will be seen at a glance by care- 
fully examining Figs. 53 and 54, and still more plainly by 
referring to Fig. 55, A being the bottom and B the top 
fixings spoken of. 

C, Fig. 55, shows the arm, and D is a bush used to raise 
the arms to allow of a larger core being inserted between 
them, as shown at /, Figs. 53 and 54. 

It must be understood that the bar is stationary, so that 
any of the arms can be turned out of the way at any time 
without disturbing anything which may be above or below. 
It will be readily seen that when all the aims, both on walls 
and carriage, as well as the upper and lower levels of the 
carriage, are in use there is certainly not much room lost; 
and when it is remembered that all that is needed to make 
a clear oven for other classes of work is to lay all the arms 
against the wall, as seen at J, Fig. 54, and strip the carriage 
of its upper rigging, one feels recompensed for the extra 
expense incurred in fitting up an oven after this maimer. 

And really I do not consider there is anything extraor- 
dinary in the expense of such an oven, for there need be 



CRYSTALLIZATION AND SHRINKAGE OF CAST-IRON. 63 

no machinist's help in the whole job; for allowing that 
proper clearance is given in all the parts described, every- 
thing can be lifted out of the sand and set into place with- 
out further preparation. 



CRYSTALLIZATION AND SHRINKAGE OF CAST- 
IRON. 

Before entering on the subject proper of this article, it 
is important that we consider for a while the nature and 
properties of cast-iron. Such a course will, I think, help 
to clear away much of the apparent mystery which seems 
to cling to the subjects of crystallization, contraction, 
shrinkage, and warping of castings. 

There is no valid reason for supposing that much if not 
all the trouble and anxiety which the founder experiences 
on account of warped and broken castings cannot be ob- 
viated, and the whole matter brought under absolute con- 
trol. But the moulder will never control this very important 
branch of his business until he steps out of the beaten 
tracks made for him by his predecessors in the trade, and 
determines to acquire the knowledge that will enable him 
not only to mould from the pattern given him, but also to 
detect the faults in its design, and take such precautions 
as will insure success in the end. 

Again, no one believes that the moulder who is ignorant 
of the nature and properties of cast-iron can be thorough 
at his business, nor need ever such a one aspire to anything 
more than being a mere machine at his trade. Hundreds 
of moulders are absolutely ignorant of the modes of pro- 
ducing cast or pig iron, and therefore it cannot be expected 
that such will be able to meet the numerous emergencies 
which from time to time beset them. It is for their 



64 THE IRON-FOUNDER. 

benefit, principally, that we take a brief survey of its 
manufacture. 

The ores from which iron is smelted are found all over 
the globe, the chief kinds being: 1. Carbonate of iron, in- 
cluding spathic ore, which is found in thin plates or scales; 
clay ironstone, and blackband ironstone. 2. Magnetic iron 
ore. 3. Eed hematite, specular or red iron ore. 4. Brown 
hematite, or brown iron ore. The magnetic ore gives the 
richest yield of metal — about 73 per cent when pure. It is 
found all over Europe, in Canada, and in the States of New 
Jersey, Pennsylvania, Virginia, etc. This ore is usually 





Fig. 58. Fig. 59. 

smelted with wood charcoal, this being the cause of its 
superiority, there being no sulphur in the fuel. Ked 
hematite ore is also very rich in iron, giving about 70 per 
cent by weight. This ore is found in the Isle of Elba and 
other parts of Europe, especially Whitehaven and Ulver- 
stone, England. Brown iron ore is a very important ore in 
England, and is much sought after by Germany and France. 
Carbonate of iron is known as spathic when it is found 
comparatively pure and crystalline, and as clay ironstone 
and blackband when earthy and impure. The spathic ore 
is found in great quantities in Prussia and Austria, and is 
in great demand to yield the spiegeleisen required in the 
Bessemer process of making steel. To give some idea of 



CRYSTALLIZATION AND SHRINKAGE OF CAST-IRON 65 

the large percentage of impurities contained in some of the 
ores, I append an analysis of the clay ironstone, Blackbed 
mine, Yorkshire, England : 

Protoxide of iron 36. 14 

Peroxide of iron 0. 61 

Protoxide of manganese 1. 38 

Alumina 0. 52 

Lime 2.70 

Magnesia 2. 05 

Carbonic acid 26.57 

Phosphoric acid 0. 34 

Sulphuric acid trace. 

Bisulphide of iron 0. 10 

Water, hygroscopic 0. 61 

" combined 1.16 

Organic matter 2.40 

Insoluble residue, chiefly silica and alumina. .25.27 

99.85 

Metallic iron, per cent 29. 12 

This extraordinary amount of impurities in the ores ne- 
cessitates considerable preparation prior to smelting in the 
blast-furnace. One method is to break the ore into small 
pieces, and mix along with it small coal. The pile, which 
may contain a thousand tons or more, is lighted at the 
end and allowed to slowly burn or roast (as it is usual to 
term it) for about a month, or until the whole has under- 
gone calcination. Special kilns or calcining furnaces are 
also used for this purpose, the waste gases of the blast-fur- 
naces being utilized as fuel. The process of calcination 
separates from 30 to 50 per cent of these impurities from 
the ironstone, besides effecting certain changes in the 
chemical constituents of the ore, which greatly facilitates 



66 THE IRON-FOUNDER. 

the process of smelting. Kich and comparatively pure ores 
are not subjected to calcination. 

The proportions of materials necessary to smelt a ton of 
pig-iron will naturally vary according to the nature of the 
fuel and ore, but the figures given below are sufficiently 
near for illustration : 2 tons of calcined ironstone, 2-J tons 
of coal (about 800 lbs. of which is required for the hot-air 
pipes and blowing engine), and from 1200 to 1600 lbs. of 
limestone. 

Blast-furnaces for the production of pig-iron are neces- 





Fig. 60. Fig. 61. 



sarily of large diameter, and are built from 40 to 100 feet 
in height; the charges are fed at the top, consisting of alter- 
nate layers of the materials mentioned in such order as will 
best secure perfect combustion of the fuel and steady melt- 
ing. Where hot air is used for blast, it is heated to from 
G00° to 1000° F., and enters the furnace through Uteres 
arranged somewhat after the plan of a foundry cupola. 
When the furnace is successfully working, the clay of the 
ironstone unites freety with the limestone, and forms a 
slag or cinder, which is allowed to run off at suitable inter- 
vals; the oxide of iron at the same time gives up its oxygen 
to the fuel, and the metal falls to the bottom of the fur- 
nace. When sufficient metal has accumulated, it is tapped 



CRYSTALLIZATION AND SHRINKAGE OF CAST-IRON. 67 

and run into moulds formed to receive it, such moulds 
being the form of the pigs as we see them in our foundries. 
The metal produced contains from three to five per cent 
of carbon, which it absorbs from the fuel, and it is this per- 
centage of carbon which gives it the quality of cast or pig 
iron, as distinguished from wrought-iron and steel. Owing 
to the great heat required to reduce the ores in the blast- 
furnace, the iron is never obtained free from the elements 
remaining in the ores after calcination, such as silicon, 
sulphur, phosphorus, manganese, and in some cases arsenic, 
titanium, copper, chromium, etc., according to the ore used. 
These impurities insinuate themselves into the cast-iron 
produced, in a greater or lesser proportion, according to 
the way the furnace is Avorking; and a perusal of the analy- 
sis of Lake Superior pig-iron (charcoal), given below, will 
show to what extent this occurs: 

Iron 93.34 

Combined carbon j 0. 38 

Graphite ) 3.39 

Silicon - 2.28 

Sulphur 0.03 

Phosphorus 0. 10 

Manganese 0. 17 

99.69 
The carbon in pig-iron is always found in the two forms, 
combined and graphitic, but varies in its proportions ac- 
cording to the variety of the iron ; the grayest iron having 
almost all of its carbon in the uncombined or graphitic 
form, whilst the hard, white irons have it almost wholly 
combined ; but the amount never exceeds from 3 to 5 per 
cent in whichever form it may exist. 

The difference in color, strength, hardness, fusibility, 
etc., of cast-iron depends upon the relative proportions of 
these two forms of carbon, varied by the influence of the 



68 THE IRON-FOUNDER. 

above-mentioned elements, which are always present in 
some degree or other. We thus have gray, mottled, and 
white iron, or, as they are commercially classified, No. 1, 
No. 2, No. 3, and forge iron. The No. 1 is the darkest 
gray, and contains the most graphitic carbon, as seen by 
the fracture, which is largely granular, and presents 
numerous graphitic planes or scales. When these abound, 
the iron will be found weak, with very little tenacity, and 
only suitable for light ornamental work, stove-plate, and 
all thin castings requiring little or no finishing. This 
iron, when melted and in the ladle, lacks the brightness 
exhibited by some of the higher numbers, however high its 
temperature may be; and, should it be allowed to cool, it 
will be observed that a scum or kish rises to the surface, 
composed of graphitic carbon, evidencing the inability of 
the metal to hold as much carbon in solution whilst at a 
low temperature as it does at a greater heat. When kish 
appears on the surface of the metal it is rendered unfit for 
use, as castings run with such iron present an unsightly 
appearance, being covered with a thick coat of plumbago. 

No. 2 presents a more regular appearance in the fracture, 
the crystals are smaller, the color is a lighter gray; it is 
also harder and stronger than No. 1, and when in a molten 
state it does not exhibit the same tendency to kish as it 
cools. This iron is esteemed the most useful for general 
purposes. 

No. 3 contains less graphite than No. 1 or No. 2, is less 
fluid when melted, but is much stronger, as it is more 
compact and dense; the crystals are still smaller and the 
color lighter than No. 2. This iron is suitable for heavy 
structural work. 

The higher numbers up to white iron are designated 
forge irons, and are serviceable for puddling. Sometimes 
the pig will solidify partly as gray and partly as white, the 
crystallization having commenced in patches, but not spread- 



CRYSTALLIZATION AND SHRINKAGE OF CAST-IRON 69 



ing through the mass before it solidified. Such iron is 
called mottled pig, and it maybe used in conjunction with 
other irons in heavy castings which call for great strength 
and closeness of grain. 

Certain kinds of gray iron, rapidly chilled after fusion, 
become white or mottled; the amount of combined carbon 
increasing, whilst a corresponding decrease of graphite 
takes place. On the other hand, some kinds of white 
iron, slowly cooled after fusion, show a separation of 
graphite and a corresponding diminution of the quantity 
of combined carbon; and according to Ackerman (a great 
authority on these subjects), " long-continued maintenance 
at a yellow heat is sufficient to change white iron into gray." 






Fig. 62. 



Fig. 63. 



Fig. 64. 



As cast-iron changes from the molten to the solid state 
it crystallizes, the form of the crystals being either octahe- 
dral, as seen in Fig. 58, or rhomboidal, as in Fig. 59. 
These crystals always arrange themselves in the casting 
with their principal axes perpendicular to the surface 
through which the heat has passed during the process of 
solidification. 

It is a noticeable fact that slow cooling produces the 
largest crystals: this should suggest to the founder the 
propriety of pouring large castings with metal at as low a 
temperature as. will allow of a correct impression of the 



70 THE IRON-FOUNDER. 

mould being taken. By following this rule the crystals 
will be smaller, on account of the more rapid solidifica- 
tion of the mass, and consequently additional strength will 
be imparted to the casting, by virtue of the greater com- 
pactness of the iron. 

The appearance of the fractured surface of broken pig- 
iron is not always to be taken as a sure indication of its 
quality. It is pretty certain, however, that when the frac- 
ture shows a uniform dark gray, with strong metallic lustre, 
it indicates toughness; whilst, again, dark, leaden-colored 
irons, lacking lustre, with spots of mottle running through, 
will be weak and unserviceable. A light gray with strong 
luster indicates strength and tenacity, but a light gray 
without lustre will invariably be found hard and brittle, 
and still more brittle as it approaches a grayish white. 

The founder, most assuredly, has many kinds of iron to 
choose from, the strength and fluidity of which will be 
according to their composition and mode of production. 
Cold-blast iron from the same ores is stronger than if 
produced by hot-blast. Iron which contains sulphur in 
small quantities is strengthened, whilst phosphorus has an 
opposite influence, decidedly weakening the iron, although 
it gives great fluidity when melted. Silicon, if present in 
iron above a certain quantity, weakens it; and if the pro- 
portion be large, makes it hard and brittle. Manganese, 
almost always present in pig-iron, tends to produce white- 
ness, as well as to make it more brittle. The strength of 
cast-iron is diminished by annealing. 

When we consider the great change brought about in 
the nature of iron by the introduction of these elements, 
we discover the difficulties which beset the founder in 
meeting successfully all the demands made upon him for 
just the correct mixture for every casting he makes. When 
selecting iron for castings which have to resist impact, such 
as hammers for forges, etc., it is best to select from among 



CRYSTALLIZATION AND SHRINKAGE OF CAST IRON. 11 

the No. 3 irons such as show a close, tough texture; this in 
conjunction with good scrap which shows a small crystal 
in the heavier fragments will answer the purpose well, 
especially if the pig is chosen from different brands; for it 
must be remembered that better results accrue from a 
mixing of brands than when one brand alone is used, the 
mixed brands being stronger than the average of brands 
taken separately. 

Steam-cylinders and all castings demanding a clean, hard 
face when finished must be made from very compact brands 
of gray iron, hardened by a plentiful admixture of scrap, 
such as mentioned above. For such castings always avoid 
using iron which shows a large percentage of graphitic 
carbon in the fracture with large crystals, as it is sure to 




give trouble on account of the heavy scum arising from it 
in the mould. When practicable it is best for this class of 
work to run the mixed iron into pigs, and remelt for the 
casting; this improves the tensile strength of the iron, and 
gives it greater density. 

Although much depends upon the experience and judg- 
ment of the founder to obtain the required degree of 
fineness and strength, yet it must be conceded that the 
strength of a casting may suffer deterioration from faulty 
designing with respect to the arrangement of its several 
parts, considered with regard to the influence its shape will 
have on the metal when it passes from the liquid to the 
solid state. 

As before stated, cast-iron assumes the crystalline form 
when solid, and it is an established fact that the crystals 



72 THE IRON-FOUNDER. 

arrange themselves in a certain position in all castings, the 
tendency being with their principal axis perpendicular to 
the sides of the casting, or, in other words, they lay length- 
wise and perpendicular to that part of the mould through 
which the heat passes; they are not always as regular and 
well defined as shown at Figs. 58 and 59, but they incline to 
that form, nevertheless. 

By referring to Fig. GO, it will be seen how the crystals 
arrange themselves in solids of that class; the rays indicate 
their position in all solids of equal dimensions. The heat 
passing out at a uniform rate on every side gives four 
distinct systems of crystals, as it were, forming a junction 
at lines across the corners. This point of junction must 
of necessity be more or less imperfect; in fact, experience 
proves such to be the case; consequently the part where 
these several systems of crystals meet will be weak always. 
The weakest parts in this case are indicated by the diagonals; 
crystallization commencing first at the outside, and the 
process of solidification being uniform in every direction, 
must result in just such an arrangement of the crystals as 
is indicated by the figure. 

What has been said with regard to crystals arranging 
themselves with their principal axis perpendicular to the 
sides, is verified by the solid shown at Fig. 61, a round shaft, 
the rays of which are seen to radiate from the centre; nor 
does the insertion of a core, as in ordnance, in any sense 
interfere with their position. (See Fig. 62.) 

It will be remembered it was said that rapid cooling 
produced the smallest crystals. Figs. 61 and 62 will serve to 
illustrate this part of the subject. All solids have their 
largest crystals in the centre, gradually diminishing in size 
towards the circumference, caused by the almost immediate 
solidification of the outer parts; the inner mass taking 
longer to dissipate its heat through the gradually con- 
gealing metal. 



CRYSTALLIZATION AND SHRINKAGE OF CAST-IRON. 73 

It is this which causes cannon cast in the ordinary way 
to be spongy or porous in the bore, the only remedy for 
which is to bring about equal rates of cooling, by intro- 
ducing a current of either cold air or water into the arbor 
or barrel upon which the core is made; by so doing unequal 
crystallization is obviated, and the metal made uniformly 
dense all through. 

Cylinders for hydraulic purposes are made as shown at 
Fig. 63 in preference to Fig. 64, for the simple reason, that 
the flat surface on the bottom of the core, with a corre- 
sponding flat surface on the bottom of the cylinder, as 
seen at Fig. 64, causes an arrangement of the crystals which 
produces lines of weakness from the outer edge of cylinder 




Fig. 66. 



to the angle of core. This evil is prevented by adhering to 
the curved outline, as seen at Fig. 63. 

Fig. 65 will serve to explain the evil effects of abrupt 
changes in the outlines of castings. The thinnest part A 
cools first, followed by the part B, the crystallization of 
which taking place after A is comparatively solid, forms a 
weak spot at C ; because, as before stated, the crystals 
pack themselves in the same direction as that which the 
heat takes in passing from the molten iron to the outer 
surface. 

Obeying this law, they must detach themselves more or 
less at these points of junction. Of course the same result 
occurs at D ; in fact, all castings whose outlines present 
these sudden changes of conformation must deteriorate in 
strength; for, whether we see the checks or not, it is cer- 



74 THE IRON-FOUNDER. 

tain they exist in a greater or lesser degree. The simple 
remedy in this case is shown at Fig. 66, which represents a 
solid of the same bulk, so changed in its outline that the 
planes of weakness are reduced to a minimum. 

Figs. 67 and 68 will aid in arriving at a true estimate of 
the superiority of curved lines, to give the maximum amount 
of strength for a given area of section. They may be taken 
for sections of wheel-arms with mid-feather, or as columns. 
At Fig. 67 the crystals are seen to arrange themselves per- 
pendicularly to the sides and ends of the webs, giving weak 
lines at each of the inner angles. 

How changed the scene when we look at Fig. 68; by 
simply rounding off the outer angles, and substituting a 
curve for the sharp angle at the junction of the webs, we 
obtain a continuous figure, presenting an unbroken outline, 
perpendicular to which the crystals arrange themselves with 
comparatively no interruption whatever. 

In order to a clear elucidation of the laws of crystalliza- 
tion, and the consequent lines of weakness resulting 
therefrom, it will be necessary to examine into forms 
other than round and square. Fig. 69 is a rectangular 
solid, and shows an additional line of weakness, running 
parallel to the upper and lower surfaces, and connecting 
with the diagonals. 

It would appear that this casting is veritably split in 
halves along this plane of weakness, and such is really the 
case in a partial sense. Examine the broken castings on 
the scrap pile, and innumerable examples will be found to 
prove this assertion; for in some pieces cavities are formed 
in exactly such places as are indicated by these lines of 
weakness, revealing the last stage of crystallization in all 
parts of the fracture; and where this phenomenon does 
not occur, a careful examination of the top surface of the 
casting will show that the upper section has fallen down 
during the process of solidification, and left a correspond- 



CRYSTALLIZATION AND SHRINKAGE OF CAST-IRON. 75 

ing concavity there. It is here seen why we attach the 
riser or feeding head on all such castings; the idea being 
to maintain a communication with these central planes of 
weakness, and by a constant feeding of hot iron to this 
particular place, counteract, in some measure at least, the 
tendency to hollowness caused by the shrinkage of the 
mass during the process of solidification. 

As previously stated, this tendency to fracture in irregu- 
larly shaped castings can be considerably modified by a 
judicious selection of brands of iron having the least 




Fig. 67. 



Fig. 68. 



Fig. 69. 



shrinkage. Broadly stated, gray iron shrinks the least; a 
perceptible increase of this quality manifesting itself all 
through the respective grades up to white iron, which is 
supposed to shrink the most. But it must be borne in 
mind that accepting the numbers of iron as graded at the 
different blast-furnaces, and basing our estimate of shrink- 
age on such grading, will oftener than not be found to be 
delusive, it being no uncommon thing to find No. 2 of one 
brand to shrink less than No. 1 of another. It would seem 
best, under such conflicting circumstances, to cast test bars 
of the several brands, and carefully note the shrinkage in 
each; such bars can also be tested for any other particular 
quality needed to bring the casting up to the required 
degree of perfection. This method enables the founder to 



76 



THE IRON-FOUNDER. 



combine the several qualities required with almost absolute 
certainty. 

Contraction is a subject which causes no small amount 
of anxiety to the founder, owing largely to the fact that 
little importance is attached to it by the designer or pattern- 
maker, who often insist upon having work made true to 
pattern, regardless of the obstacles they may have placed in 
the way of its accomplishment. Admitting the fact that 




Fig. 70. 



some attention should be paid to symmetry of design, yet 
we insist that this reason should never be allowed to usurp 
the place of strength and safety, as is too often the case. 
Many instances might be quoted where gross violations of 
the laws governing contraction are insisted upon, giving 
rise to all manner of contrivances to counteract the evil, 
much of which which might be saved by a slight increase 
or decrease in the thickness of some particular part of the 
casting, to insure uniform cooling of all its parts. 

It has often been said that if all the parts of a casting 



CRYSTALLIZATION AND SHRINKAGE OF CAST-IRON. 77 

were made equal in thickness there would be no trouble; 
but this assertion can be successfully combated by most 
founders of ordinary experience. Take the case of a floor- 
ing-plate, say i inch thick and 4 feet square, carefully 
moulded, and cast so that no part of the casting shall 
deviate from the thickness specified. Does such a casting, 
if left to take its own course, always come out true ? 




Fig. 71. 

Hardly ever. This is only one of many instances which, 
might be quoted to disprove such an assertion. 

Let us take into consideration what occurs immediately 
after such a plate is cast. First, the surface under and 
over, as well as along the edges, almost instantly chills, 
from contact with the cold, damp sand; especially is this 
tbe case at the outer edges, which rapidly cool and contract, 
and, owing to the fact that the contraction must cease as 
the parts become cold, the outer portions cooling first, as 
just explained, are subjected to a continuous strain until 
the whole becomes cold and contraction ceases all over. 
Now, if this strain were equal on both sides, the plate 



78 



THE IRON-FOUNDER. 



would remain straight; but such is not the case; the top 
cools first, on account of the heat passing more rapidly 
through the cope than it does into the floor, leaving the 
under surface to contract last, which it of course does by 
drawing the corners down, or, as is frequently the case, 
breaking the plate. 

The lines of weakness shown in the solids are also lines 
of weakness in the plate, because, being the last to cool, 
the crystals assume larger dimensions, with a corresponding 




Fig. 72. 



diminution in density, which means a loss of strength. 
To counteract this tendency to warping in plates, such as 
we have under consideration, cooling must be urged at such 
parts as would be last to set, so that equal rates of con- 
traction may ensue. The parts which cool last in this cnse 
are indicated by the diagonals in the end section of Fig. 60; 
and should the plate be oblong, they will be as shown at 
end section of Fig. G9. By uncovering the sand from these 
parts immediately after pouring, taking care to keep the 



CRYSTALLIZATION AND SHRINKAGE OF CAST-IRON. 79 

outer edge well protected from the cold air, we may expect 
a true casting in most cases. 

We will now look for a remedy in this case, that will not 
only saye all the annoyance and trouble of cooling after the 
plate is cast, but will give us a casting comparatively free 
from internal strains. 

We say the outer edge cools too quick: then increase the 
body of metal at that part. We say likewise that the 
diagonals cool too slow: then reduce the body of metal at 
that part sufficient to counteract the evil. 

By adding £ of an inch to the thickness at the edges, 2 




1 



Fig. 73. 



Fig. 74. 



inches wide, chamfered so as to lose itself gradually in the 
surface, as shown in section at Fig. 70, and reducing the 
thickness at the diagonals -f§ of an inch, working this out 
in every direction evenly and without abruptness, as shown 
by the rays in plan Fig. 70, the difficulty is surmounted. 

Round disks or plates may be treated similarly. Should 
•the plate be required 4 feet in diameter and | inch thick, 
let the edge be | inch thick, 2 inches wide all round, 
gradually reducing to T 7 g- inch in the centre. 

The proportions given will answer in the majority of 
cases for all such castings as we have been describing. 

To insure good work of this kind, hot iron and rapid 
filling of the mould is indispensable. An arrangement of 
the gates for pouring large plates is shown at Fig. 71, which, 
when practicable, it is always best to adopt; for, by the 



80 THE IRON-FOUNDER. 

time the metal, entering each gate, has reached the opposite 
side, much of its heat has been absorbed by the cold mould, 
but it here receives an impetus from the hot iron which is 
just entering the mould at that spot. The metal, by this 
method of pouring, is given a rapid circular motion, which 
insures the correct filling of the mould with well-mixed 
iron at a uniform temperature, — a desideratum in this 
instance; for, as before stated, difference in temperature 
causes variations in shrinkage. . 

When ribs the same thickness as the plate are cast on, as 
shown at Fig. 72, the casting will be hollow on the plain 
side; the reason for which is, that the edges of the ribs set 




Fig. 75. 

and contract, whilst the metal, at their junction with the 
body of the plate, is in a plastic condition. These edges 
then act as a prop or stay, to prevent the plain side from 
shrinking in a straight line; it must consequently either 
bend or break, the latter thing occurring very frequently. - 

If the outer edge be increased in thickness, as before 
dire&ted, and the ribs made one fourth thicker than the 
body of the plate, this difficulty will be obviated. 

Long plates, as shown in section at Fig. 73, always give 
trouble if ribs and plate are equal in thickness; by increas- 
ing the thickness of the ribs one fourth, straight castings 
will result. Suppose the plate at Fig. 73 be J inch, then 
the ribs would require to be T 5 -g- inch. 



CRYSTALLIZATION AND SHRINKAGE OF CAST-IRON. 81 

Beams similar to section Fig. 74 are always hollow on 
the plate side if the web is made the same thickness as the 
plate; the remedy suggested above will insure success in 
this case. 

Fig. 75 shows a casting having one rib on each face at 
opposite edges; when such castings are made equal in 
thickness all over, the plate will be drawn convex along 
one edge and concave at the other. To put it another way, 
both ribs will be down at the ends. The remedy in this 
case is to increase the quantity of metal in the ribs 25 per 
cent, as before. 

Fig. 76 is the sectional elevation of a casting, large 
numbers of which are made of various lengths in the 
several architectural works, for building purposes. The 
tendency in such castings is to warp hollow along the angle 

A. This is caused by unequal cooling; B and C cool first, 
and act as stays to prevent the part A, which is last to cool, 
from shrinking in a straight line. The edges B and C are 
consequently drawn round. It is customary to bare these 
castings along the angle A as soon as cast, with the view of 
preventing this; but this method rarely meets the case. A 
slight change in the form is all that is needed to obviate 
this trouble. Suppose the casting to be 1 inch all through 
in the original, as at Fig. 76 : the alteration suggested is 
shown at Fig. 77 (when the casting must be moulded in 
the position as seen). The horizontal web is 1| inches at 
C, and | inch at J, the vertical web being 1 inch all through 
in the pattern; this web will increase some in thickness at 

B, being the point of greatest pressure when cast. Conse- 
quently we have a gradual increase of thickness extending 
outwards, with a corresponding decrease at the junction of 
the webs at A. 

When such castings can be moulded in the position seen 
at Fig. 78, the dimensions mustbe as figured, if inch at A, 
and ly 1 ^ inches at B and C, respectively. Square columns, 



82 



THE 1RON-F0 UNDER. 




^ - 



CRYSTALLIZATION AND SHRINKAGE OF CAST-IRON 83 

with openings along one side, shown at Fig. 79, if cast say 
1 inch thick all over, will in all cases be drawn hollow on 
the side which is opposite to the holes, if left to take their 




own course after being cast. The best method of bringing 
these columns out straight is to so proportion the thickness 
on all the sides as to produce equal rates of cooling. Fig, 



84 



THE IRON-FOUNDER, 



80 is a section of 12-inch column, with figures showing the 
requisite proportions when the average thickness is to be 1 
inch. Sides, at AB, 1 inch; top C, J inch; bottom J), 1£ 
inch. 




Long beams of the class shown at Fig. 81 will invariably 
warp hollow along the deep side A, with more or less ten- 
dency to hollowness at plate B, The view is that of a lin- 
tel 12 inches wide at B, with webs A, G, 12 and 6 inches 



CRYSTALLIZATION AND SHRINKAGE OF CAST-IRON 85 

deep respectively, and 1 inch thick all through. To 
secure a straight casting, comparatively free from internal 
strains, the proportions marked at sectional elevation, Fig. 
82, must be adhered to : plate B J inch, web A 1 inch, 
and web C l T 3 g inches. Should the webs be equal in depth, 
as seen at section Fig. 83, then the webs A, C must be l^g- 
inches, and the plate B $ inch. 

All castings of the kind shown in perspective, at Fig. 84, 
warp round on the top edges if equal thickness is insisted 
upon, from causes already explained. 

The remedy is to follow the proportions as given at Fig. 
85, f inch at the edges A, B, with a gradual reduction 
towards the crown at C, which must be § inch. These 
dimensions are given on the supposition that the casting is 
to average \ inch thick, and the proportions will be safe 
to follow in all such castings, irrespective of size. 

Eound columns come crooked, more or less, if the heat 
escapes quicker on one side than it does on the other; as 
for instance, when the cope contains a very limited thick- 
ness of sand, or from exposure o"f one side before contrac- 
tion has ceased. If these causes do not exist, and the core 
is set central, as at Fig. 87, these castings will come 
straight. 

Sometimes cores are purposely set in the mould as shown 
at Fig. 86, the idea being to give a greater body of metal 
at the point of least pressure; this practice is to be con- 
demned, inasmuch as it weakens the casting as well as 
causes it to become crooked. 

There are some practices common to most foundries 
which cannot be too severely criticised. Columns are often 
made with heavy mouldings, and bases cast on them, to 
save trouble and time. This should not be done, as it 
endangers the safety of the casting; for not unfrequently 
castings thus made are found to have separated at places 
where abrupt changes have occurred in the outline. That 



86 



THE IRO ft FOUNDER. 



portion of Fig. 88 marked A, which represents a section of 
base having this fault, will give some idea of what is 




Fig. 86. 





Fig. 87. Fig. 88. 

meant; the angles indicated by the arrows cannot be other 
than fractured, from the fact that crystallization of the 



CRYSTALLIZATION AND SHRINKAGE OF CAST-IRON 87 

heavy portions takes place so long a time after the thinner 
parts are set. The correct method is to have the body of 
the column run even all through, with loose mouldings 
and base; but when, as is often the case, the builder or 
architect must be accommodated at short notice, a compara- 
tively safe column may be produced by reducing the core 



Fig. 89. 



opposite the angles (taking care to round off the latter as 
seen), allowing it to gradually lose itself some distance 
away, as shown at base B and at moulding C. This allows 
the crystals to arrange themselves more uniformly in the 
mass, on account of the almost imperceptible change from 
a heavy to a lighter section of thickness. 

Fig. 89 is an example of the folly of designing window- 
sashes, etc., with all or perhaps only two of the sides of 
greater sectional area than the inner ribs; the latter set 
and contract almost instantly, pulling at the outer frame 
whilst in a semi-molten condition, resulting in castings 



88 THE IRON-POUNDER. 

similar to the somewhat exaggerated view given. The 
only remedy for this is to reduce the area of the heavy 
parts, distributing such reduction amongst the lighter 
ones, until a balance is obtained and equal rates of cooling 
assured. 



PRESSURES IN MOULDS. 

Cast-iron in a liquid or molten state has the power to 
transmit pressure to every part of the mould into which it 
is poured; and each part of the mould — when it is full — 
sustains a pressure equal to the weight of a column of cast- 
iron, reaching from such part to the upper surface of the 
running basin. 

Let a mould be prepared similar to the one shown at 
Fig. 90, page 89, which represents a plain bar 1 inch square 
and 12 inches long, with graduation-marks at each inch of 
its length. Now suppose iron is poured into this mould 
to the depth of one inch : it is plain that the weight of 
1 cubic inch of iron is the pressure which the bottom 
surface of the mould must resist; and it is equally plain 
that the pressure on the bottom surface will be twelve 
times that amount when the mould is full. And because, 
as above stated, of the power of liquid iron to "transmit 
pressure in every direction," each of the four sides of the 
bottom inch must bear the whole pressure, as long as the 
iron is in a liquid state. 

The pressure at each graduation ascending decreases by 
exactly the weight of 1 cubic inch of cast-iron; thus, the 
pressure at each mark equals the weight of a column of 
cast-iron 1 inch square reaching to the surface. Let it be 
required to find the pressure at six inches deep. 



PRESS URES IN MOULDS. 



80 



Weight of 1 cubic inch, pound 26 

Depth, in inches 6 

Pressure, in pounds 1.56 

This shows that the pressure at \ its depth equals a little 
over \\ pounds. It must not be thought that because we 
have chosen a column having one square inch for its base, 
that the reasoning applies only in this case : the same 






Fig. 90. 




Fig. 91. 



reasoning applies to every form or magnitude of base. 
Suppose the column to be 12 inches instead of 1, and 12 
inches deep: the bottom surface of such a mould would 
have to resist a pressure equal to the weight of molten iron 
resting upon it, or 450 pounds ; and the pressure against 
each square inch of the sides would be equal to the weight 
of a column of iron whose base is a square inch, and whose 
height is equal to the depth from the upper surface to that 
part of the side surface it may be desired to calculate for. 
Let it be required to find the pressure at 6 inches deep, 
of the side 12 inches square. 



90 THE IRON-FOUNDER. 

It has been shown that the pressure at 6 inches deep for 
1 square inch is 1.56 pounds. Therefore, 

Pressure for 1 square inch, 6 inches deep 1.56 

Multiplied by width of side 12 

Total pressure in pounds 18.72 

This gives the pressure at 6 inches deep as nearly 19 
pounds, or equal to the weight of 12 columns whose bases 
are each 1 inch square, and whose height is 6 inches, as 
seen at Fig. 91. 

It must be understood that not only the surface of the 
mould, but every portion of the molten iron, sustains a 
pressure from the weight above it, and that this pressure 
is governed by the same law; in other words, every square 
inch of the surface of this cube is pressed by the surround- 
ing metal whilst in a fluid state, and the amount of press- 
ure which every square inch sustains is exactly the weight 
of the column of metal which stands above it. 

The fact of the liquid iron coming to a state of rest after 
the mould is full, proves that these forces must be equal in 
any direction, and that, whatever be the pressure outwards 
on the side of the mould, the same force is being exerted 
in the opposite direction; so that every one of the 144 
square inches contained in the square foot stands as it 
were on its own basis, exerting an equal pressure in every 
direction and on every side. 

From the foregoing the following general law is deduced: 
" The pressure exerted at any depth below the surface is 
always equal to the weight of a column of cast-iron whose 
height is equal to the depth, and whose base is equal to the 
surface over which the pressure is extended." 

It has been clearly demonstrated that every part of a 
horizontal surface, at the same depth, sustains the same 
pressure. I will now endeavor to show how the pressure is 



PRESSURES IN MOULDS. 



91 



exerted on the perpendicular sides of the mould in ques- 
tion. At Fig. 92 the side is divided into inches. Annexed 
to the several divisions on one of the sides is the amount 
of pressure in pounds exerted laterally at that particular 
depth from the surface when the mould is full. It is by 
the aid of this figure that I propose to show the method of 
finding the whole amount of pressure exerted on each side 
of the mould under consideration. This, clearly under- 





Fig. 92. 



Fig. 93. 



stood, will furnish a sufficient rule by which to obtain the 
correct sum of the pressure on the sides of any other 
mould, of whatever dimensions. (This figure also gives 
the amount of vertical pressure in pounds on the whole 
surface at the several depths indicated.) 

At lateral pressures the amount for one inch in depth is 
3.12 pounds (this means, of course, across the whole side), 
increasing by just the weight of an additional inch down 
to 12 inches, where it is seen to be 37.44. 

Now, as this increase is seen to be uniform, one half of 
the depth must be the average pressure of the whole sur- 
face, and will be found at G inches. 



92 THE IRON-FOUNDER. 

To prove this, at 6 inches deep the pressure is 18.72 
pounds — exactly one half of 37.44 pounds — which repre- 
sents the extreme pressure at 12 inches deep. Now, take 
the pressure sustained at 7 inches, one below, and at 5 
inches, one above, and we have 21.84 pounds and 15.6, 
respectively; add these together and we get 37.44 pounds, 
of which sum 18.72 pounds is one half. Or take the press- 
ure at 8 inches deep, which is 24.96 pounds, and at 4 
inches — the pressure at which point is 12.48 pounds — and 
we obtain the same result. If each of these points sus- 
tained a pressure of 18.72 pounds, which is the average 
pressure, we should have the same total. 

The same reasoning will apply to all the points equally 
above and below the middle point, 6 inches; the pressure 
on each point below it exceeds the pressure at 6 inches by 
exactly as much as the pressure on a point equally distant 
above it falls short of the pressure at 6 inches, and there- 
fore, on account of this mutual compensation, a general 
average is obtained. 

It is clear that the total pressure on each side must be 
the whole 12 divisions multiplied by the amount of the 
average pressure, which is always found at half the depth 
of the liquid iron, and in this case is found at point 
6 inches, at which point the pressure is 18.72 pounds. 
According to the above reasoning, the total pressure is the 
same as if this average pressure was uniformly diffused 
over the entire surface of the sides in contact with the 
liquid iron. Therefore : 

Number of divisions 12 

Multiplied by average pressure 18.72 

Total pressure on side 224. 64 

Again, it appears that the total pressure exerted on the 
perpendicular side — when the mould is full — is just the 



PRESSURES IN MOULDS. 93 

same as if the side was taken for a horizontal bottom, and 
half the depth of the liquid iron rested thereon. Thus : 

Side converted into a horizontal bottom 144 inches. 

Multiplied by half the depth 6 inches. 

Total cubic inches 864 

Weight of 1 cubic inch 26 

5184 

1728 

Total weight in pounds 224. 04 

Giving exactly the same results as previously shown. (I 
would say just here that this rule is absolute, and applies 
in all cases, whether the mould be solid, like the one we 
are discussing, or only \ inch thick; as long as the iron is 
in a fluid state the conditions are the same.) 

From these examples the following rule is deduced for 
calculating lateral pressure, where the mould has a flat 
bottom and perpendicular sides, and is simply filled open, 
as at Fig. 92. Find the number of square inches in one side 
below the upper surface of the iron in the mould, multiply 
this sum by the number of inches in half the depth of the 
liquid iron ; the product will be the number of cubic 
inches contained in half the depth, the weight of which is 
equal to the lateral pressure on that side. 

It matters not what form of bottom the mould may 
have. If it be horizontal and flat, and the sides perpen- 
dicular, the lateral pressure may be found by this rule, 
because the point of average pressure is always found at 
half the depth below the surface of the liquid iron. 

Suppose the mould to be cylindrical (as seen at Fig. 93), 
12 inches diameter and 12 inches deep. The point of 
average pressure is at A, which is one half its depth. To 
find the pressure on the whole side of such a moull, we 
proceed as per rule. Thus ; 



94 THE IRON-FOUNDER. 

Circumference 37.69 inches. 

Multiplied by the depth 12 inches. 

Total surface in sq. in 452.28 

Half depth in inches 6 

2713.68 
Weight of a cubic inch .26 

1628208 
542736 

Weight in pounds 705.5568 

It is seen that, according to the rule quoted, we have a 
pressure equal to 705-J pounds on the whole side of a cylin- 
drical mould, 12 inches diameter and 12 inches deep, 
when such a mould is filled with molten iron. 

To prove the accuracy of this rule, we will multiply the 
average pressure of one square inch down the perpendicu- 
lar side into the total surface previously found. Thus : 

Total surface in sq. in 452.28 

Average pressure of 1 in. 12 in. deep 1.56 

271368 
226140 
45228 

Total pressure in pounds 705.5568 

This proves the lateral pressure to be the same as would 
be produced upon the bottom of a mould 452| inches in 
magnitude, with perpendicular sides, and holding liquid 
iron to the depth of 6 inches. 

A thorough knowledge of the increase of pressure in 
proportion to the depth will suggest the expediency of a 
corresponding increase of strength in the material used for 



PRESSURES IN MOULDS. 



95 



constructing very deep moulds. The pressure at the top 
being inconsiderable, very little strength is needed to 
resist it; but as the ratio of pressure increases with the 
depth, a good margin of strength is indispensable at the 
bottom. This will admit of a gradual decrease as the 
upper surface is neared. It is entirely owing to ignorance 
upon this subject that so many failures are made through 
lack of strength in the arrangements for securing moulds 
of considerable magnitude, or else, as is too frequently the 
case, the opposite extreme occurs, and time and material 




Fig. 94. 

are lavished upon an undertaking sufficient for a piece of 
work of ten times the bulk. 

The illustrations, so far, have been confined to moulds 
with horizontal bases and perpendicular sides, but in order 
to explain other phases of the subject of pressures it will 
be necessary to change the form of the moulds, pouring 
them (as in the former cases) level with the upper surface, 
or what is usually termed cast open. 

Fig. 94 is the elevation of a mould whose sides are seen 
to slope outward. Its base is 12 inches square, aud its 
perpendicular height is 12 inches. Fig. 95 shows another 
form of mould with the same dimensions for base and per- 
pendicular height as Fig. 94. The angle of slope is also the 
same, but in this figure the inclination is inward. The 
lateral pressure on Fig. 94 must be tne weight of liquid iron 



96 THE IRON-FOUNDER 

resting upon it, and each point sustains a pressure equal 
to the weight of a column of iron immediately above it. 

Now the lateral pressure on Fig. 95 must be just the same 
as at Fig. 94, because, as already demonstrated, liquid iron 
presses with equal force in every direction, and conse- 
quently each point of the lateral surface of Fig. 95 is being 
pressed upward with a force equal to the weight of a col- 
umn of iron perpendicularly over it; therefore the rule 
given for ascertaining lateral pressures will apply in this 
case. 

It must be well understood that the pressure on the 
bottom of all these moulds shown at Figs. 94, 95, and 96 is 
the same, because they are all of equal area and depth. 
The shape of the sides, or the quantity of iron which the 
mould contains, does not alter the conditions, namely, 
" that the pressure on the bottom is equal to the weight 
of a column of iron the depth of the metal contained in a 
mould, the sides of which are perpendicular from the 
base." Consequently the pressure on the bottom at Fig. 
9G is exactly the weight of molten iron in the mould, be- 
cause the sides are perpendicular to the base. But in the 
mould shown at Fig. 94 the pressure is less than the whole 
weight of liquid iron in the mould, while again at Fig. 95 
it is greater. 

Enough has been said to prove that cast-iron, when in a 
liquid state, transmits pressure equally in every direction, 
and also that the pressure produced by the weight of liquid 
iron is proportionate to its depth. If the explanations 
already given are thoroughly understood it will not be 
difficult to understand why molten iron (albeit so heavy) 
should have the property, in common with all other liquids, 
of finding its level. The discussion of this property in 
molten iron will enable us to more clearly elucidate the 
principle, or law, which governs upward pressure or " lift * 
in covered moulds. 



PRESSUMES IN MOULDS. 



97 



For the purpose of illustrating this principle, we will 
suppose a mould like the one shown at Fig. 96, such mould 
to be filled by pouring the iron down the running gate A, 
which communicates with the mould at B. Casting 
moulds in this manner is the everyday experience of most 
foundries; it is therefore a well-established fact that the 
mould can be filled by this method. Now if the pressure 
at B (which is equal to the weight of a column of iron the 
depth and magnitude of the running gate A) was not 



1234567891012 




Fig. 95. 




transmitted to every square inch of molten iron in the bot- 
tom of the mould, it would be impossible to fill it by this 
means. But such being the case, the mould gradually fills 
until the level of the runner is reached at A. This con- 
clusively proves that the whole of the liquid iron in the 
mould is balanced by the one square inch contained in 
the running gate, the pressure of which is transmitted to 
every square inch on the bottom of the mould, and, press- 
ing upward as well as downward, sustains the whole mass 
at a level common with itself. 

In proving the existence of this force in an upward (as 
well as downward and lateral) direction, we shall undoubt- 
edly solve the problem of how much weight is required to 
resist it. In other words, we shall discover how to secure 
the mould safely after it has been made and put together. 



98 



THE IRON-FOUNDER. 



Fig. 97 represents the same mould as shown at Fig. 96. 
In this case it is covered with a cope or flask A. The 
running gate B is continued through the flask, and con- 
nects with the pouring basin C, into which the molten 
iron is poured, to find its way through gate B into the 
mould D. Now suppose the mould to be a cube of 12 
inches dimensions, as at Fig. 96, and the flask combined 
with the runner box to be 12 inches deep, and remember- 



er 



JS 



li 



n 



~E 



Fig. 97. 



ing that the pressure arising from the weight of liquid iron 
is proportional to its depth, and that the pressure is trans- 
mitted in every possible direction, it follows that, because 
the increase of depth in the running gate is exactly double, 
the pressure inside the mould will be in the same ratio 
when the runner is full to the top of the basin. From 
what has been already demonstrated, it will be readily per- 
ceived that as soon as the liquid iron has filled the mould 
it at once begins to exert a pressure upward, against the 
cope, A, ever increasing until the running basin is full. 



PBESSUEES IN MOULDS. 99 

The amount of pressure or lift against the cope will be 
exactly the weight of a column of liquid iron whose mag- 
nitude is equal to the mould, and whose depth equals the 
depth of the running gate from the upper surface of the 
mould at E to the top of basin C, as shown by the broken 
lines. To prove this, let us again look at Fig. 96, where it 
has been clearly shown that the running gate has the power 
of sustaining all the iron contained in the mould at its own 
level, the reasons for which have been given. Now, apply- 
ing the same reasoning to the question before us, we may 
rest assured that when the basin is full it will require as 
much weight to hold it there as it is capable of lifting up to 
its own level. This will be the case irrespective of the size 
of the runner or magnitude of the mould. To determine 
the amount of pressure arithmetically, " multiply the 
number of inches in depth below the top of running basin 
to the point at which the lift or pressure begins, by the 
number of square inches contained in the surface on which 
the pressure is exerted; the product of these numbers will 
be the number of solid inches of iron whose weight is equal 
to the pressure." Thus: 

Depth from top of basin C to joint at E..... 12 inches 

Total square inches of surface at E 144 

Total cubic inches. 1728 

Weight of a cubic inch of cast-iron ........ .26 

10368 
3456 

"Weight needed to balance pressure 449.28 lbs., 

or nearly 450 pounds. 

Should the surface against which the upward pressure 
is exerted be increased to 12 instead of 1 square foot, 



100 



THE IRON-FOUNDER. 



the depth of runner remaining at 12 inches, the pressure 
would, of course, he increased 12 times, and a correspond- 
ing increase of weight would he required to balance it. 
The depth of mould below the lifting surface does not in 
any way affect the pressure against the cope; the pressure 



4n 



% 


i 

i 


-i 


li 


i 

s 

■ 
i 
• 






j 





Fig. 98. 



is just the same, whether the mould be one foot or one 
inch thick. 

Fig. 98 is the sectional elevation of another kind of mould, 
being simply a square box one inch thick, with one open 
side. The inside forms a cube of 12 inches, consequently 
the outside dimensions are 14 inches square and 13 inches 
deep. It will be seen that the bottom of this box forms 
the upper surface of the mould, on which account the in- 
structions given for Fig. 97 will serve for this, if AB, Fig. 
98, equals in depth CE, Fig. 97. 

Fig. 99 illustrates the same casting moulded in the op- 
posite position (the bottom forming the lower surface), 
and will serve to explain some very interesting and instruc- 



PRESSURES IN MOULDS. 



101 



tive facts in relation to pressures in moulds. The pressure 
laterally and on the bottom is not any different than would 
be the case if the mould was a solid block (as in the ex- 
amples already explained), but it is different with the 
cope, as the amount of pressure upwards is considerably 
increased; how much, I will proceed to show. I said that 




n 



*± 



i — i 



z> 



Fig. 99. 



the inside formed a cube of 12 inches; now, allowing AB 
to be 12 inches deep, and BC to be 12 inches more, we 
find the full depth of pressure A C, Fig. 99, to be just 
twice as much as CE, Fig. 97 consequently the full press- 
ure on the bottom of the mould acts with equal force on 
the under side o£ the core. In other words, the core has 



102 THE IRON-FOtJMbEH. 

taken the place of the molten iron which the runner is able 
to sustain, and, being so much lighter than the iron, will 
be borne upon its surface, if there is not sufficient weight 
added to make up the difference, and thus restore the bal- 
ance. 

As before stated, the pressure under this core is exactly 
the weight of a column of iron whose magnitude equals 
its bottom surface, and whose height equals the depth A 0. 
The broken lines represent the weight needed to balance 
the upward pressure. An addition to the upward pressure 
commences at D, and the pressure from this point will 
equal the sum of one inch thick on nil four sides of the core, 
multiplied into the depth AB. Thus, Fig. 99 : 

Total square inches of surface at 144 

Depth of A C in inches 24 



576 

288 



Total cubic inches „ 3456 

Add cubic inches from D to A 624 

Total cubic inches 4080 

Weight of a cubic inch of cast-iron 26 



24480 
8160 



Weight required to balance pressure. . 1060.80 lbs. 

This shows that the weight need to balance the whole 
upward pressure exerted against the cope is about 1061 
pounds, minus the weight of core and cope. 

There are numerous contingencies in connection with 
this question, such as the methods of pouring, and flowing 



pmessumes m moulds. 



103 



off the metal at reduced heights, etc., to diminish the press- 
ure; but of these I will speak further on, confining myself 
at present to the absolute laws which govern pressures when 
the molten iron is at a state of rest. 

The mould shown at Fig. 100 is almost the same as Fio-. 
99, the only difference being that the core (which is sup- 
posed to be one cubic foot) is surrounded by one inch 
thickness of iron. These altered conditions will bring out 



c; 



B\— 



K 



M 
"1 



E 



£ 



c 



Fig. 100. 



new ideas, and will aid materially in exploding some of the 
false notions which cling to this subject. 

In the first place, it must be understood that the press- 
ure under the core at C has reached its limit, immediately 
the molten iron begins to cover its upper surface at E, be- 
cause as the iron flows over the core it acts as so much 
weight pressing downward, and by the time the runner is 
filled to the top- of basin A the pressure downward is equal 



104 THE IRON-FOUNDEH. 

to the weight of a column of iron 12 inches square, and as 
high as the runner basin A resting on it. Such cores usu- 
ally rest on studs FG, and are held in position by others 
HI; now, the actual pressure against the top studs will 
in this case be the weight of a cubic foot of iron, or 450 
pounds, and the pressure against the cope will be equal to 
the weight of a column of iron 14 inches square, the height 
of AB, shown by broken lines JKLM. It is evident 
from this example, that, to hold such cores in position, it 
is .only necessary to provide for an upward pressure equal 
to the weight of the amount of molten iron they displace; 
also that the depth at which they may be placed from the 
surface of the running basin is of no consequence, so far 
as the upward pressure is concerned; but the general press- 
ure will be proportionate to the depth, as has been already 
explained. 

The class of moulds which next claim our attention are 
the spherical, including balls, shells, kettles, pans, etc., 
and the cylindrical, including c}dinders, pipes, columns, 
shafts, etc., cast horizontally. To thoroughly understand 
the method of finding the amount of upward pressure on 
this range of work, it is important that the examples given 
on average pressure be clearly understood. 

What has been already stated with respect to average 
pressure is the principle, which, generalized, must lead to 
a rule that will answer for every variety and shape of 
mould. As before stated, the various parts of any surface, 
whatever be its form, will be subject to pressures, depending 
on their depths below the upper surface of the running 
basin; all points at the same depth suffering the same 
pressure. There is a certain pressure or mean of all the 
various pressures to which the points of the surface are 
subject, and whatever this pressure be, it must be such 
that, if diffused over the whole surface, the total amount 
of the pressure on that surface will not be altered. If, 



PRESSURES IN MOULDS. 105 

therefore, this medium pressure can be found, and the 
magnitude of the surface in contact with the liquid, iron 
be known, the total pressure may immediately be obtained. 
To determine, therefore, the total pressure of any surface, 
"let the position of the centre of gravity of that surface 
be determined by the rules established in mechanics, and 
let its depth below the highest point of the liquid iron be 
ascertained, then multiply the number of inches in this 
deptli by the number of square inches of surface against 
which this pressure is exerted; the product will express 
the number of solid inches of iron whose weight is equal to 
the total pressure." 

I have shown at Fig. 101 the section of a mould for a 
cylinder 12 inches diameter and 1 inch thick, cast horizon- 
tally. A careful examination of this drawing will at once 
reveal the method of finding the amount of upward press- 
ure in all such moulds. The highest point is the upper 
surface of the running basin A, and it is from this point 
that all the depths are measured. To find the pressure 
under the core, we must first ascertain the point of average 
pressure, which is thus found: Let the square CDEF be 
drawn around the core, and from CDEF draw lines to 
the centre; the point of intersection of these lines with 
the circle will be the point of average pressure. Lines 
drawn across the square at BE and B'B' give the rec- 
tangle GHIJ, whose weight equals the amount of press- 
ure under the core. 

To find the cope pressure, draw KLMN; the intersec- 
tion of iTiV" with the outer diameter at gives the point 
of average pressure for the cope. A line drawn across 
GO' the width of the outside of the cylinder at PQ, and 
then vertically to the height of running basin, gives the 
rectangle PQES, whose weight equals the amount of 
pressure under the cope. When these rectangles are ob- 
tained, they will «in this case be found to measure 14 inches 



106 tbe Iron Pounder. 

by 7 inches for the cope, and 12 inches by about 8J inches 
for the core. Therefore the whole pressure per foot in 
length would be obtained, thus: 

FOR COPE. 

Width in inches 14 

Depth " 7 

Area in square inches 98 

Length in inches 12 

Total cubic inches 1 176 

Weight of a cubic inch 26 

7056 

/COO fV 

Total pounds pressure per foot 305.76 

FOR CORE. 

Width in inches 12 

Depth " 8.5 

Area in square inches. 102 

Length in inches 12 

Total cubic inches 1224 

Weight of a cubic inch 26 

7344 
2448 

Total pounds pressure per foot 318.24 

Add amount for cope 305. 76 

Total pressure cope and core per foot 624.00 

The combined pressures per foot in length for a 12-inch 
cylinder, with the upper surface of the running basin 12 



PRESSURES IN MOULDS. 107 

inches above the centre of the mould, is thus found to be 
624 pounds, and, of course, that amount of weight is 
needed to balance the pressure on every foot. In other 
words, if the mould is 10 feet long, the whole pressure 
would be 624 pounds multiplied by 10, equalling 6240 
pounds. 

An important feature of this question is that, should the 
depth from the centre to- the upper surface of the pouring 
basin be increased, the rectangle PQRS must be brought 
up to its level by adding the increased depth to R'S', as 
shown by the broken lines. The increase of pressure un- 
der the cope caused by these altered conditions would be 
just three sevenths of the amount previously found, and a 
corresponding increase of weight would be needed to bal- 
ance it. But these altered conditions do not affect the 
core, only in the general pressure all around it; for 
whilst additional depth creates more pressure, it must be 
remembered that this increase of pressure is exerted on the 
whole surface of the core, downwards as well as upwards; 
it must therefore remain stationary. 

To put it otherwise, the amount of weight found to be 
necessary for holding down the core in this case is just 
what would be required if the mould was filled no hio-her 
than GH, for immediately the molten iron passes this 
point it begins to receive, in a downward direction, the 
same pressure as is produced on the cope upwards, which 
acts as added weight for increased pressure. Consequently 
it will be seen that the conditions laid down for securing 
the core are not affected by any increase in the depth after 
the points GH are passed. 

The points of average pressure in spherical moulds are 
found by the same methods as shown for cylindrical 
moulds, by reason of which we can use Fig. 101 to demon- 
strate the principles involved; simply using the figures 
GH1J and PQ-RS as elevations of cylinders, instead of 



108 



TBE IRON-FOUNDER. 



as rectangles. Taking the figure as representing a sphere, 
the cope pressure would be equal to the weight of a column 
of iron 14 inches diameter, reaching from points PQ to 
the running basin A, as before explained. Now apply the 




Fig. 101. 



same reasoning to the core (supposing the casting to be a 
shell), and we have the lift or upward pressure represented 
by the cylinder GHIJ, or as equal to the weight of a col- 
umn of iron 12 inches diameter and 8 J inches deep. 

In the several figures used to illustrate this subject, it will 



PRESSURES IN MOULDS. 109 

be observed that the weight of cope or core has not been 
taken into consideration; but this may be done when it is 
practicable to ascertain the exact weight, and allowance 
made accordingly. Bnt when the weights can only be 
approximated, good judgment will suggest a wide margin 
on the side of safety. 

Another item for consideration is the form of running 
basin used to pour the mould with. Figs. 102, 103, 101 will 
help to explain this part of the subject. It is very evident 
that if we pour a casting down a runner similar to the one 




u 




Fig. 102, 

shown at Fig. 104, that the molten iron will enter the 
mould with a greater impulse than would occur if the 
basin shown at Fig. 102 was used, because of the accelerated 
force of the fall being exerted immediately down the run- 
ner; whilst in the case of basin at Fig. 102 this force is 
spent at A, giving time for the molten iron to mass itself 
quietly before entering the mould. If runner 101 must be 
used (as in some instances it must) sufficient extra weight 
must be added to meet the necessity. Runner 103 meets 
this case half-way, being a medium betwixt the two. 

Being assured that pressure is proportionate to the depth, 
and that the depth is the height of the top of the running 
basiu above the surface against which the pressure is ex- 
erted, numerous ways of reducing this pressure (and there- 
by saving labor in weighting) will suggest themselves, and 



110 THE IRON-FOUNDER. 

may with safety be adopted. Kisers, or flow-off gates, as 
large and as numerous as practicable, may be placed at con- 
venient parts of the mould, and the iron allowed to flow off 
at a lower altitude than the running basin. Suppose the 
height of basin to be 24 inches from the surface of press- 
ure, and the risers flow off at 12 inches high, or one half; 
all else being favorable, it would be correct to base the cal- 
culation on 18 inches instead of 24 inches deep (this being 
the average between the two), and by so doing save 25 per 
cent of weight. 

If the work in hand must have the whole pressure level 
with the top of running basin, make " assurance doubly 





Fig. 103. Fig. 104. 

sure" by adding some to the depth when making the cal- 
culation. Thus, if the actual depth be 12 inches, call it 
13 inches deep. This will give one-twelfth more weight 
than is needed to balance the pressure, and will be found 
to be a sufficient proportion of allowance in all ordinary 
cases. 

The following table will be found useful to such as have 
not the time or inclination to study the subject of pressure. 
It is only necessary to find the depth and area of lifting 
surface, and the weight required to balance the upward 
pressure wiil be found opposite these numbers. The ac- 
companying examples will explain the use of the table. 



PRESSURES IN MOULDS. 



Ill 



TABLE SHOWING THE AMOUNT OF WEIGHT NEEDED TO BAL- 
ANCE THE UPWARD PRESSURE OF MOLTEN IRON IN 
MOULDS AT GIVEN DEPTHS AND AREAS. 







Weight 






Weight 






Weight 






to Bal- 






to Bal- 






to Bal- 


Depth. 


Area. 


ance 
Pressure. 


Depth. 


Area. 


ance 
Pressure. 


Depth. 


Area. 


ance 
Pressure. 


Ius. 


Sq. Ins. 


Lhs. 


Ins. 


Sq. Ins. 


Lbs. 


Ins. 


Sq. Ins. 


Lbs. 




1 


.26 


3 


200 


156. 


9 


20 


46.8 




2 


.52 


3 


300 


234. 


9 


30 


70.2 




3 


.78 


3 


400 


312. 


9 


40 


93.6 




4 


1.04 


3 


500 


390. 


9 


50 


117. 




5 


1.3 


3 


600 


468. 


9 


60 


140.4 




6 


1.56 


3 


700 


546. 


9 


70 


163.8 




7 


1.82 


3 


800 


624. 


9 


80 


187.2 




8 


2.08 


3 


900 


702. 


9 


90 


210.6 




9 


2 34 


3 


1000 


780. 


9 


100 


234. 




10 


2.6 


6 


1 


1.56 


9 


200 


468. 




20 


5.2 


6 


2 


3.12 


9 


300 


702. 




30 


7.8 


6 


3 


4.68 


9 


400 


936. 




40 


10 4 


6 


4 


6.24 


9 


500 


1170. 




50 


13.0 


6 


5 


7.8 


9 


600 


1404. 




60 


15.6 


6 


6 


9.36 


9 


700 


1638. 




70 


18.2 


6 


7 


10.92 


9 


800 


1872. 




80 


20.8 


6 


8 


12.48 


9 


900 


2106. 




90 


23.4 


6 


9 


14.04 


9 


1000 


2M0. 




100 


26. 


6 


10 


15.6 


12 


1 


3.12 




200 


52. 


6 


20 


31.2 


12 


2 


•6.24 




300 


78. 


6 


30 


46.8 


12 


3 


9.36 




400 


104. 


6 


40 


62.4 


12 


4 


12.48 




500 


130. 


6 


50 


78. 


12 


5 


15.6 




600 


156. 


6 


60 


93.6 


32 


6 


18.72 




700 


182. 


6 


70 


109.2 


12 


4 


21.84 




800 


208. 


6 


80 


124.8 


12 


8 


24.96 




900 


234. 


6 


90 


140.4 


12 


9 


28.08 




1000 


260. 


6 


100 


156. 


12 


10 


31.2 


3 


1 


.78 


6 


200 


312. 


12 


20 


62.4 


3 


2 


1.56 


6 


300 


468. 


12 


30 


93. & 


3 


3 


2.34 


6 


400 


624. 


12 


40 


124.8 


3 


4 


3.12 


6 


500 


780. 


12 


E0 


156. 


3 


5 


3.9 


6 


600 


936. 


12 


60 


187.2 


3 


6 


4.68 


6 


700 


1092. 


12 


70 


218.4 


3 


7 


5.46 


6 


800 


1248. 


12 


80 


249.6 


3 


8 


6.24 


6 


900 


1404. 


12 


90 


280.8 


3 


9 


7.02 


6 


1000 


1560. 


12 


100 


312. 


3 


10 


7.8 


9 


1 


2.34 


12 


200 


624. 


3 


20 


15.6 


9 


o 


4.68 


12 


300 


936. 


3 


30 


23.4 


9 


3 


7.02 


12 


400 


1248. 


3 


40 


31.2 


9 


4 


9.36 


12 


500 


1560. 


3 


50 


39. 


9 


5 


11.7 


12 


600 


1872. 


3 


60 


46.8 


9 


6 


14.04 


12 


700 


2184. 


3 


70 


54.6 


9 


7 


16.38 


12 


800 


2496. 


3 


80 


02. 4 


9 


8 


18.72 


12 


900 


2808. 


3 


90 


70.2 


9 


9 


21.06 


12 


1000 


3120. 


3 


100 


78. 


9 


10 


23.4 









Note. — These weights are exclusive of cope, core, covering-plate, or whatever 
the pressure is exerted against. 



112 THE IRON-FOUNDER. 



Example 1. 

It is required to find the amount of lift or pressure 
under a flask containing a plate 6 feet long and 4 feet 
wide. Depth from top surface of running basin to the 
surface against which the pressure is exerted, 12 inches, 
gates and risers adding 6 inches to the width of the plate. 

OPERATION. 

Length of plate in inches 72 

Width of plate in inches, including gates 54 



288 
360 



Total square inches of lifting surface 3888 

Ins. Lbs. 

Per table for 12 inches deep 1000 = 3120 

3 3 



3000 = 93G0 

Per table for 12 inches deep 800 = 2496 

" " " 80 = 249.6 

" " " 8 = 24.96 



" " " 3888 12130.56 

Making 12, 130 \ pounds, or a little over six tons, needed 
to balance the pressure. Suppose the cope to weigh 2000 
pounds: this would give a sufficient overplus; and this 
proportion of overplus must in all cases be allowed, espe- 
cially in the event of having to run up to the full head 
of pressure. 

Example 2. 

Required, the amount of weight to balance the pressure 
against a surface containing 1651 square inches; depth 



PRESS URES IN MOULDS. 113 

from the top of running basin to lifting surface, 1 foot 9 
inches. 

Ins. Lbs. 

Per table for 12 inches deep 1000 = 3120 

" 600 = 1872 

« et a 

it « a 



a 



50 


= 


156 


1 


— 


3.12 


1651 


5151.12 


Ius. 




Lbs. 


1000 


= 


2340 


600 


= 


1404 


50 


= 


117 


1 


— 


2.34 


1651 


3863.34 






5151.12 



Per table for 9 inches deep. 

it a u 

a a a 

a a a 



Add amt. for 12 inches deep. 

Total weight needed to balance pressure.. . . 9014.46 
or a little over 4| tons. 

Note. — If risers of at least five times the capacity of the 
runners are set to flow off at four inches below the top of 
the running basin, the extra weight may be dispensed 
with, and the cope allowed as weight in the calculation. 

In most cases, however, close figuring may be dispensed 
with by substituting another area or depth for the one in 
question. 

For instance: " Supppose the pressure to be required 
for 975 square inches area, 6 inches deep," 1000 may be 
substituted for 975, and the answer obtained at once. 
The error, being on the side of safety, can be readily 
allowed. 

Or it might be required to find the pressure at 9 inches 
deep for 1200 area. Then 600 gives 1404, or one half of 
the sum required. 



114 THE IRON-FOUNDER. 



CHILLED CASTINGS. 

Chilled castings ought to combine the maximum of 
strength with a hard wearing face. To insure these condi- 
tions, especially in car-wheels, the tread or outer surface of 
the rim should be chilled to whiteness, passing into a mot- 
tled iron, and from that to a soft gray in the interior of 
the wheel. 

The irons used for these castings are certain brands of 
cold- blast charcoal, brown hematite, or specular iron ; few, 
if any of the pure magnetites can be used successfully for 
the purpose. Especially is this the case with most of the 
No. 1 irons, which usually contain an excess of carbon in 
the uncombined state. 

At the same time it is, we think, difficult to predeter- 
mine, from the chemical analysis of any pig-iron, whether 
it will produce good chilled castings or otherwise. 

It must be admitted that certain mixtures of pig-iron 
will answer better than others, but what these mixtures 
are exactly, can only be ascertained by such founders as 
make the manufacture of chilled castings a specialty. 

The succeeding article " Mixtures for Rolls," discusses the 
various difficulties which beset the founder when he essays 
to establish formulas, or mixtures which shall be considered 
as standard; and when, in addition to what is therein 
stated, we consider that a difference in the mode of work- 
ing in the blast-furnace may change the nature of a metal 
which had previously given satisfaction, so as to render it 
absolutely worthless, we realize the imperative necessity of 
constant daily tests of the mixtures in use; such tests to 
be made at least one day prior to the cast. There is no 
doubt but that the mixing of the iron for chilled work is 
the most important as well as the most difficult part of the 
business. 



CHILLED CASTINGS. 115 

The most that can be done by the founder who is enter- 
ing upon this line of work is to select irons wh ch contain 
a considerable portion of their carbon in a combined state, 
and which yield a strong, tough, fine-grained, bright gray, 
also such as exhibit a gray mottled fracture in the pig. 

Spiegel eisen, in proper quantities, can be added to the 
mixture, if found too soft and too low in chill. 

Certain proportions of Bessemer-steel scrap will impart 
strength as well as deepen the chill. Some say that by 
using Bessemer steel charcoal-iron may be dispensed with 
altogether; but I failed to elicit confirmation of this when 
the question was put to an eminent specialist, who said 
that, after repeated trials of mixtures composed of steel 
scrap in varying proportions with the best brands of an- 
thracite pig, he was unable to produce a mixture which 
would meet every requirement, and consequently had con- 
tinued the use of charcoal-pig exclusively. 

Old car-wheels which have been made by a reliable firm 
may be mixed in proportions varying according to the 
grade of metal they are composed of and the depth of 
chill; in fact, such wheels, when the fracture shows a low 
percentage of mottle, with but a very thin film of chilled 
surface are in some instances the best mixture that can 
be obtained. 

When iron of the exact grade and quality needed cannot 
be obtained, recourse must be had to a judicious mixing to- 
gether of white irons with some of the dark-gray irons, the 
proportions of which can be ascertained only by practice 
and keen observation. 

There are many excellent brands of charcoal iron in use 
for the manufacture of chilled castings, but none of them 
exceed in quality or produce better results than the "Sal- 
isbury." This conclusion is arrived at after careful and 
studious experimenting on my part, backed by the opin- 
ions of some of the leading manufacturers in the States, 



116 THE IRON-FOUNDER. 



MIXTURE FOR ROLLS. 

The question is often asked by foundry men, " What is 
the best mixture for rolls ?" and again, " Why cannot we 
have a ' regular ' set of mixtures, gotten up by some one 
who has had large experience in this class of work ?" Go 
where you will, you are met by these inquiries, and 
(strange as it may seem) no answer comes — at least, none 
that is intelligible to the average moulder. Some have 
tried to give what purported to be the right mixture, made 
up of so much of "this," to so much of "that," sup- 
plementing the formula by saying that good rolls were 
made at such a place by the mixtures given. Again, you 
go into shops where they make a specialty of rolls, and 
ask for their mixtures, and naturally they shake their 
heads, and express by the look they give, as well as they 
could by a multitude of words, " Not much." Now this is 
very discouraging to the seeker for information; and yet it 
is not to be wondered at when we take into consideration 
the amount of labor and study which has been devoted to 
the subject by those engaged in the business; and it is not 
too much to say that even the best informed on the sub- 
ject are very far from perfection, inasmuch as they are 
constantly called upon to change their mixtures on account 
of the variations in the different shipments of iron. To 
attempt to give a formula for universal adoption by say- 
ing, " So much of No. 2 to so much of No. 5, and so on," 
is sheer nonsense, for the simple reason that when you 
receive a consignment of iron from the furnace which was 
ordered to be No. 4, you will find that no less than three 
or four grades of iron have been shipped to you, making 
it utterly impossible to follow any prescription based on 
the number of the iron alone. The trouble can be over- 
come after this manner : 



MIXTURE FOR ROLLS. 117 

After first settling in your own mind what particular 
grade shall be called No. 1 and No. 6, with their inter- 
mediate numbers according to grade, you may then make 
from your own experience mixtures that will be intelligible 
to yourself, but would be useless to any one unacquainted 
with your methods of numbering. But this is not all that 
enters into the successful making of rolls, or anything else 
that requires special mixtures. If it were at all times 
profitable and convenient to use new iron, the business 
might soon be learned by adopting the method suggested 
above. 

All foundrymen of experience are aware that large 
quantities of scraps (from broken rolls and other castings 
made from charcoal iron) accumulate and must be worked 
up, and it is right here that the skill and judgment of the 
mixer is put to the test; and I know of nothing which 
demonstrates the impracticability of making a set of stand- 
ard mixtures more than the fact that whilst some of the 
scrap may be open-grained and very soft, other specimens 
will be perfectly white and brittle as glass; and yet some 
of our experts insist on their mixtures being correct, which 
tell you to put in a certain proportion of scrap. Again, 
it is common amongst moulders to say when a roll turns 
out too soft, or the opposite, " Oh, there ought to have 
been a little more ( car- wheel ' in that mixture," or a 
little less "car- wheel," as the case might be; as if car- 
wheels were a something on which the greatest reliance 
could be placed for being always one thing in point of den- 
sity or hardness. A little observation on these points will 
at once dispel this illusion, for whilst some wheels may 
be chilled almost 1 inch deep, others again will be found 
hardly touched with chill, and the iron all through as soft 
as lead almost. 

Again, I would call the attention to this fact, that full 
reliance cannot be placed on the productions of our best 



118 THE IRON FOUNDER. 

firms in this line of business. I have seen four rolls, all of 
the same dimensions, which came from a leading firm, no 
two of which were alike in density. One was almost 
condemned for being too hard, the softest being as much 
in fault the opposite way. I mention this to show that 
however much may have been accomplished in the way 
of mixtures, much still remains for the judgment of the 
mixer; for, as is well known, a judicious selection of scrap 
in large quantities will always produce the finest casting, 
and, if possible, new iron should never be used exclusively. 
Many may think that it would be easy to mix sufficient 
very hard grade new iron to neutralize a very soft one. 
This plan will never succeed. The result of such a mix- 
ture is always a pronounced mottle, large and unsightly; 
the white and dark patches seem never to have united. 
Such rolls last but a very short time, for as soon as they 
are put to use the soft parts crumble out, leaving the roll 
perfectly honeycombed. This proves the necessity of 
using iron in the mixture not too far apart in their nature 
and degree of density, and of choosing such grades as are 
the nearest to the mixture required. A good plan is to 
melt together your very hard and soft scrap, and run 
down into good-sized pigs, say 6 or 8 inches square. The 
reason for this is that where small pigs are made for char- 
coal scrap, the result is " white iron," which as a rule you 
do not want. All overflows from casts should be run in 
like manner, and covered over as soon as run. By adopt- 
ing this method a great saving is effected. 

I shall now proceed to give a few mixtures for different- 
sized rolls; and to make them intelligible to the reader 
it will be necessary to inform him what is meant by Nos. 
3, 4, and 5, as the case may be. These several numbers 
represent the grades as arranged for my own convenience 
in mixing. 

For instance, No. 3 means a close, even-grained, clear 



Mixture for rolls. IiO 

bright iron, entirely free from the slightest trace of chill. 
This iron, if of a good brand, will be hard to break, and 
when broken will show a clean fracture straight across the 
pig. (I would here call the reader's attention to the fact 
that Salisbury charcoal iron forms the basis of these mix- 
tures, being, in my opinion, the best iron for rolls.) By 
No. 4 I mean an iron very similar to the No. 3 in the 
centre of the pig; but about an inch from the edge all 
round it assumes a darker hue of a bluish cast, and much 
closer in grain, with a tendency to chill at all the corners. 
This iron will be still tougher than No. 3, but must have 
no trace of mottle in it. By No. 5 I mean an iron having 
the centre of pig the same grain as the 1 inch round the No. 
4 pig, the rest being mottled, and having its surface chilled 
to the depth of f or \ inch. By a faithful adherence to the 
descriptions of the numbers it will be easy to arrange the 
following mixtures, all of which I consider " standard," 
having used them myself with unvarying success. They 
are the result of a patient study of the subject, aided by 
an extensive series of experimentary practice. As will be 
seen, I give more than one mixture for the same-sized roll, 
which enables the mixer to regulate his mixture according 
to the iron he may have by him. It will also be observed 
that I describe the nature of the scrap used as well as the 
car-wheels; these are important items, and must be care- 
fully noted; as, for instance, by "low" car-wheel, I mean 
such as have not more than J inch chill on the face; by 
" medium " car- wheel about ^ inch ; and by " high," I mean 
such wheels as are chilled from f to J inch. The scrap I 
also distinguish by grades in a similar manner ; and as 
scrap is made up of a miscellaneous lot of old iron, such 
as pieces of rolls, necks, etc., also such scrap as is made in 
the foundry, including all grades of hardness, it becomes 
imperative that the closest scrutiny should be made of 
such, assorting and grading it as directed. By "low" 



120 



THE IRON-FOUNDER. 



scrap, I mean such as shows neither chill nor mottle. 
" Medium" is intended for all scrap which is mottled, 
but only slightly chilled ; whilst " high " means that which 
is deeply mottled, with considerable chill. By noting care- 
fully these particulars, the table of mixtures given below 
will be intelligible. 

These mixtures are so many pounds to the ton of 2000 
lbs., and may be modified to suit circumstances, as, for 
instance, scrap may be substituted for wheel of the same 
grade, or vice versa. 





CO 

6 


6 


ITS 

6 


cS O 




P.&C 

££ 

CO 


o 


*3 a 
o 


"3 
o 


For 10" and 12" rolls, 
with 5" and 6" necks 


Lbs. 

500 
160 


Lbs. 

1000 
G00 

940 
1350 

1100 

920 

600 
1100 


Lbs. 
150 ' 


Lbs. 
1000 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 






750 






For 15" rolls, with 10" 




900 










650 




For 20" rolls, with 11" 


165 

"ioo" 


450 

200 
100 








450 


For 22" rolls, with 1?" 

ncclcs 
For 25" rolls, with 11" 

necks 




500 

300 
200 






415 
300 




' 200 ' 


300 


300 




300 











PART II. 
CORE-MAKING. 



CORE-MAKING. 



The initiatory branch of the moulders' art is core- 
making ; and why such an important subject should be 
left so much in the background I am at a loss to under- 
stand. I consider it to be the foundation of the business, 
and feel assured that sufficient stress is not laid upon the 
importance of our apprentices learning that part of their 
trade thoroughly. 

It is not uncommon to see good moulders placed at a 
great disadvantage from their inability to make their own 
cores. This should not be the case. Every moulder ought 
to be able to do this. 

Let us first consider the material needed for core-mak- 
ing. To insure success in this department requires skill 
in the selection of the different sands and their several 
mixtures. Districts widely separated will vary consider- 
ably in this particular, according to the kinds of sand 
nearest to hand, and their suitability, price, etc. The 
city of New York and vicinity are fortunate in having 
unlimited supplies of beach or white sand, which enters 
largely into the mixtures for general work. Especially is 
it well adapted for small jobbing cores, being Very fine and 
easily worked, and, after being burned in the casting, giv- 

121 



122 THE IRON-FOUNDER. 

ing little trouble to clean. But in the country, where 
white sand is out of the question, on account of the cost 
for carriage, the river-sands are used instead, with slight 
variations in the mixtures. 

The next in importance is the coarse, sharp, or, as it is 
by some called, fire-sand, on account of the resistance it 
offers to the high temperature of the molten iron. This 
sand is valuable also because, being so open in its grain, it 
permits the gases formed during the process of casting to 
escape freely, or, as is most commonly said and understood 
by moulders, " the air comes off good." But good as these 
sands are, they would be valueless alone, because, contain- 
ing little or no clay, — as most other sands do, — they will 
not hold together by the regular method of dampening 
and ramming. Consequently, in order to utilize them, we 
resort to artificial means to bring them up to the proper 
consistency. The most common things used for this pur- 
pose are flour, molasses, clay, resin, and glue. There are 
many other things used, but, for all practical purposes, I 
consider the ones mentioned will meet all requirements. 

Moulding-sand is also used in the core-mixtures, to help 
them up to the required stiffness, on account of its possess- 
ing in a great measure the elements lacking in the white 
and fire sands ; but, on account of its finer nature neutral- 
izing the good derived from the openness of the fire-sands, 
it must be used only for the purpose of stiffening, as 
before mentioned. Moulding-sand, so called, is that which 
is used for the legitimate purpose of moulding, as the 
filling of foundry-floors, sand-heaps, and, when suitably 
treated by the admixture of the necessary ingredients, for 
the facing of patterns. As previously stated, the kinds of 
moulding-sand differ according to the districts from which 
they are got ; yet, as they are all chosen with the view of 
best suiting the work for which they are required, I think 
it will not be difficult to determine which is needed after 



CORE-MAKING. 123 

the enumeration of some of the most useful kinds and the 
particular virtues they possess. 

The Albany and Waterford sands are chiefly valuable on 
account of their fineness, being graded from No. 1 up to 
the coarsest kinds. The No. 1 is used for the finest kind 
of work, such as stove, register, very light machinery, etc. 
But for the heavier kinds of jobbing and machinery work, 
the Jersey sands rank A No. 1, being of a tougher nature 
on account of the larger percentage of clay which enters 
into their composition. There are also three grades of 
this sand, the medium being the most useful. But, as this 
sand contains so much more clay, we need great care in its 
use. Its property of adhesiveness makes it valuable for 
the heaps and floor; but for the facing of patterns we have 
recourse to the mixtures before spoken of, these mixtures 
being required as well for the easier and safe working as 
for the purpose of conducting the gases from the surface 
of the mould. I shall say more on these subjects in their 
proper place, and shall now proceed with the subject of 
core-making, first giving a list of mixtures which. I have 
proved to be the best for the work for which they are in- 
tended. 

CORE-SAND MIXTURE NO. 1. 

10 parts white sand, 1 part flour, with water sufficient to 
make it work easily. 

No. 1 mixture is for small jobbing, round and square, 
and all cores not too large, and where the iron, in pouring, 
does not strike the core. A little water sprinkled carefully 
over the cores before putting into the oven will give a 
harder skin. 

CORE-SAND MIXTURE NO. 2. 

7 parts white sand, 3 parts fine Jersey moulding-sand, 
1 part flour, with water sufficient. 



124 TBE IRON-FOUNDER. 

No. 2 mixture is for cores requiring a little tougher sand, 
and will cling together better than No. 1, enabling you to 
bring up the edges good, and is suitable for small port- 
cores for cylinders, pumps, etc. Sometimes I have found 
it necessary to change these mixtures to suit intricate jobs 
having very thin cores in them, and difficult to vent. In 
such cases I have, after failure with mixtures Nos. 1 and 2, 
had recourse to the following, never knowing them to fail 
in cases where the proper precautions were taken to make 
and secure the vents. 

CORP>SAND MIXTURE NO. 3. 

10 parts white sand, 5 parts moulding-sand, 2 parts No. 
1 mixture, 2 parts resin (ground very fine). Mix with 
water, and sprinkle a little weak molasses-water on cores. 

CORE-SAND MIXTURE NO. 4. 

Mix thoroughly, when dry, half and half river-sand and 
fire-sand, sift through a fine sieve ; then to 15 parts of 
mixed sands add 1 part of resin, £ part of flour, and mix 
with weak molasses-water. 

CORE-SAND MIXTURE NO. 5. 

8 parts fire-sand, 2 parts Jersey moulding-sand, 1 part 
flour. Mix with thick clay-water. 

No. 4 is a good substitute for the " white"-sand mix- 
tures. No. 5 is an excellent mixture for larger cores, and 
is the best dry-sand facing for any ordinary work, such as 
cylinders, pumps, etc., up to 40 inches diameter, requiring 
very little venting if thoroughly dried. It is also suitable 
for large pipe and other cores, for which the other mix- 
tures are not suited, on account of the tendency of the 
white or river sand to melt or scab. Pipe-cores made of 



CORE-MAKING. 125 

No. 5 mixture will enable the moulder to gate or run his 
casting on the top — an absolute necessity sometimes where 
a sound casting is required. 

I need not give any more mixtures for core-sands, as a 
slight modification of the above will enable the core-maker 
to meet all demands on his ingenuity. 



LOAM MIXTURES FOR CORES ON BARRELS. 

Where the loam must be made by hand, the mixture is 
5 parts fire-sand, 2 parts Jersey moulding-sand,. 1J parts 
manure. Thick clay-wash to suit. 

If ground in the mill, the ingredients will be : 7 parts 
fire-sand, 2 parts moulding-sand, 2 parts manure. Thick 
clay- wash. 

The reason for the increase of fire-sand and manure is 
that the mill grinds the ingredients into a finer mass than 
they can be mixed by hand ; therefore, to preserve the 
openness required, more fire-sand and manure are added; 
but care must always be taken not to grind the mass 
longer than is necessary to mix it well. 

RIGGING FOR CORES. 

Another important item in core-making is the rigging 
for securing, venting, transportation, etc., and to be able 
to make the best use of such tackle as may be on hand, 
as well as to get up new arrangements if actually needed. 
I have frequently seen immense waste of time and money 
caused by the elaborate nonsense of some would-be genius, 
who, if he had looked carefully into the job, would have 
been able to do it twice over with the rig he had around 
him, and in much less time than it took him to use the 
complications he had pondered out. 

To begin with, we will take a very simple example — that 



126 



THE IRON-FOUNDER. 



of a flat core 2 feet long, 1 foot wide, and 6 inches thick. 
Suppose it stands out of the mould at each end 3 inches; 
except at the ends, metal is supposed to cover the whole of 
the core. Now, all we have to do in this case is to secure 
the sand with rods both ways and take the vent out 
through the ends, as at Fig. 105. Such a core as this 
would require No. 5 mixture. Now, this is a very ordi- 
nary core to make, but, retaining the same width and 
length and changing the depth, we shall meet new necessi- 





Fig. 105. 



Fig. 106. 



ties. Let us suppose our core to be 24 inches deep, and we 
find that we must tie our core in its depth as well as in its 
width and length. Better provision must also be made for 
carrying off the gas than is shown at Fig. 105, as the three 
holes, 1, 2, 3, will not be sufficient for that purpose. 
Allowing that we have nothing but rods to make our core 
wfth, we must put in two sets of irons, 6 inches from each 
end of the core, in the same manner as shown at Fig. 105, 
and also ram up other irons on end, to tie the core in its 
depth. 

To lead off the gas, we either increase the number of 
holes, or what is better, we can in this case have a hole in 
the centre 1J inches diameter, through which a bar can be 
put, and, after ramming up to the vent-rod and venting 
down to the bottom of the core, cinders must be placed to 



CORE-MAKING. 



127 



the depth of 3 or 4 inches, taking care that they do not 
come to the outside. After ramming the remainder, vent 
down to the cinders. It will be readily seen that by this 
method every part of the core is reached by the vent-wire, 
and consequently the gas will freely escape through the 
one large hole in the middle, as A, Fig. 106. 

Another advantage in limiting the number of vent-holes 
is that the moulder can secure his work more readily and 
securely. Now, as this core cannot be as easily handled as 
the smaller one, some provision must be made for lifting it 



^m 


qp 


O y, 


MjiilkM 














Fig. 107. 



Fig. 108. 



into the mould; and, as we have supposed that our core 
comes through at the ends of the mould, a hole may be 
made, through which a bar can be passed, or hooks may 
be rammed up in the core, taking hold of the bottom irons 
or rods. 

Fig. 106 shows section of core where the hook B comes, 
and explains at a glance the different instructions given. 

Let us now suppose that our core is 1 inch thick, and we 
at once see that our room for rods and vents is very lim- 
ited. We must in this instance be careful to have the 
vents evenly divided, a little below the half. 

The vent-rods and long irons being placed after \ inch 



128 THE IRON-FOUNDER. 

of sand is rammed in, the short rods to tie the whole 
together can be laid across, and the ramming completed. 
Care must be taken in drawing the vents, or the core will 
be split. We have, in this case, something to contend 
with which does not occur in the other cores. The rods 
cannot exceed J inch diameter, and, being so much weaker, 
will require more careful handling. We must remember, 
also, that being so much shallower than the others, the 
iron in pouring will cover the core quicker, and the vents, 
being so much smaller, cannot convey the gases away as 
fast as they should do, especially so when the core is very 
hard. To overcome this difficulty, it is best to make all 
this class of cores in fire-sand alone, mixed with molasses- 
water of medium strength. This leaves the sand very 
porous, and there will be no difficulty. 

But should it occur that the cores we have been speak- 
ing of had the iron cast on all six sides, we must then 
adopt another method to carry off the gas. In the case of 
a core 6 inches deep, we pass other vents connecting with 
those running through the length of core, and connect 
these with the place where we are to take off the vent 
(which is usually on the top) by as large a hole as possible. 
Fig. 107 shows the position of vents, which, when all is clear 
and free, are stopped securely on the outside. In the case 
of the core with cinders, we simply place upright vents 
leading from the cinders to wherever the gas is to be taken 
away. 

It may be here stated that where you have only very 
small holes through which the core must be taken when 
cleaned out, there must be as few irons used as possible, 
and no wrought-iron where cast will do. 

In some jobs, where the core is not too large, sticks of 
wood may be used to stiffen the core, and where this can 
be done with safety, a great amount of trouble is saved in 
the cleaning. 



CORE-MAKING. 



129 



So far I have spoken of cores made with rods; but it is 
not always easy to obtain them, and something must be 
contrived in cast-iron, especially when the cores come 
larger than the ones I have been describing. My principal 
object in being so particular in these examples is to show 
how a makeshift may be made to answer, as the principles 
laid down will answer for much larger cores than the ones 
described, and are applicable to cores of different shapes. 
We will now consider cores of larger dimensions, and show 
the best methods of making irons for them. 

Let the core to be made be 10 feet long, 2 feet wide, and 
1 foot 6 inches deep, and when cast surrounded with iron; 





Fig. 109. 



Fig. MO. 



in this case we want a sound core with as little core-iron 
as possible, as it has to be broken up before it can be with- 
drawn. ' What we lack in strength of core-iron must be 
remedied by the number of places we lift the core by. 
Fig. 108 will explain the kind of iron to be made in this 
emergency. This iron can be easily stamped or cut out in 
a soft bed, staples being pushed down the required depth, 
and the prickers put in to suit the kind of core it is for. 
Should there be any body of sand to carry below the iron, 
rods may be cast in to answer. 

But should the ends of such a core come through the 



130 THE IRON FOUNDER. 

mould, a much different arrangement can be made. The 
core we considered last would require anchors under and 
over to keep it in place, but this one will allow of a strong 
beam or girder for main iron, and all we need to do is to tie 
the sand to it, which is done as shown in Fig. 109, which 
gives a view of rings around the main iron, with vent-holes 
on each side, also the hole in bar for lifting core. This 
plan admits of almost universal application where there is 
much heavy work made. Fig. 110 shows the method as 
applied to half-core for water-cylinder 3 feet diameter. 
Another advantage in this method is that the bar and most 
of the rings can be saved for future use. 

PIPE-COKES. 

Pipe-cores are often a great trouble, when, if correct 
methods were adopted for their production, everything 
would be correct, and all annoyance cease as if by magic. 





Fig. III. Fig. 112. 

The common and sometimes expensive method of using a 
half-box fails very often — through carelessness or igno- 
rance — to give a good round core, and I have frequently 
seen one or both halves fall apart in jointing, when, if a 
little judgment had been exercised by the core-maker, there 
needed to have been no trouble. 

Figs. Ill and 112 show sections of half core with rods 
bent to suit the curve, these serving the purpose of clamps 
to keep the sand from spreading away from the main irons, 
which are shown. 

The two methods of jointing are here seen. The plan 



CORE-MAKING. 



131 



of dry jointing is much quicker than the other, if the 
matter of a little fin is of no consequence. 

By adopting this principle of making them, pipe-cores 
up to 12 inches may be made very readily, and even larger 
ones at a pinch. I have also shown how hooks may be 
applied for handling. It is better, in the case of elbows 










o 










o 













o 




o 


1 


o 














o o o o o o o o\\ o 




Fig. 113. 



and bends, to put two main irons of medium strength, 
rather than one strong enough, as they can be more easily 
drawn out. No. 5 core mixture is to be used in these 
cores. 

Larger pipe-cores require different treatment, and as it 
is seldom that boxes are made for them, I will now show 
the way to make a 24-inch-diatneter core in halves. 

We will suppose the pipe to be in the form of Fig. 113. 



132 



THE IRON-FOUNDER. 



A template or pattern must be made 1 inch thick, as much 
wider than the core as will allow the sweep, shown at 
Fig. 117, to run on the edge with about 1 inch of bearing. 
Let the template be from 6 inches to 9 inches longer than 
the casting at all the ends, this extra length being required 
for bearing or print. From this pattern or template you 
make — on a level bed — a right and left hand plate from 
f inch to 1 inch thick, according to strength required. 

Another level bed must now be prepared, on which to 
make the irons. (I have shown in Fig. 12 a section, in 
perspective, of the kind of core-iron you are to make.) 
Let your bed be well dug up, sufficiently deep to admit of 
the pricker pattern being pushed down to the required 




Fig. 114. 




Fig. 115. 



depth and direction. After your bed is scraped off, lay 
your template on, and mark it all around, right and left. 
From these lines as a guide you must trace out the shape 
of your iron, setting in from the outside, as far as will leave 
it clear of the core, about 1^ inches. After cutting out or 
stamping down the sand to the right depth and width — 
which in the case of a 24-inch core would be about 2 inches 
deep and 3 inches wide — you connect the frame by cross- 
bars, as shown at Fig. 1 13, at such parts as will be required 
for lifting, anchoring, or bolting together, if it should be 
necessary to do so. Fig. 116 shows staple - for lifting, stud 
for anchor, and hole for bolt. You will require a curved 
pricker pattern made of iron, tapered as shown, one pattern 
serving for several sizes of cores. It is well to have the 



CORE-MAKING. 133 

pricker pattern extend a little beyond the distance it is 
to be pushed into the sand, the straight end answering for 
a handle, as shown at A, Fig. 114. 

To obtain some idea of the direction to push the pricker 
down, draw elevation of core and iron as shown at Fig. 114, 
allowing for sand under the core-iron. Place your pricker 
pattern on the sketch, and mark the depth and angle as 
seen. 

There may be some little difficulty in keeping the pricker 
at the right angle at first, but a little practice will enable 
you to bring out your iron a perfect fit every time. 1 have 
no hesitation in saying that this makes the best and cheap- 
est iron that can be made, as it can be applied to pipes of 
all kinds and sizes with absolute safety. 

Your plates and irons being cast and cleaned, see that 
the edge where the sweep will run is smooth; throw on 
your parting-sand and bed your iron on a thin layer of core- 
sand. By referring to Figs. 114 and 115 you will see that 
cinders fill up the core to within a short distance of the 
prickers; let the cinders be well rammed down, and then 
ram on the sand. In large cores considerable old or floor 
sand may be used under the prickers, but it is well to let 
the core-sand take good hold of them. 

Should some of the prickers be too far away from the 
face of core, a few spike-nails driven in will serve to make 
up the deficiency. 

Should anchors be required in the core, Fig. 115 shows 
how to put in the stud; let your packing rest on the cross- 
bar only high enough to admit of a piece of pine wood, say 
4 inches square, on which must rest a piece of wrought- 
iron 3 inches square, f inch thick, the whole to stand \ 
inch below the top of core. 

I do this to save the trouble of knocking out the studs, 
which must be done to save the casting, when anchor, stud, 
and core-iron *ire all touching. The plan suggested is 



134 



THE IRON-FOUNDER 



simple : by the time that the thin plate at top has become 
hot enough to burn the wood, the iron is set, and all 
danger over. Of course the wood burns away and frees 
the stud. I have seen many castings break on account of 
there being no provision made for the shrinkage, or not 




Fig. 116. 



being able to get at the stud quick enough. By a careful 
survey of the figures given, you will see at a glance all that 
I am desirous of explaining. There will often be places 
where the sweep will not work, but by making a clean 
finish up to where it will reach on the plain, the rest will 
be easily overcome by the careful use of eye and hand. 
There are constant demands on the ingenuity of the 



CORE-MAKING. 



135 



moulder or core- maker to save cost of core-box, such as 
cores where an ordinary sweep, as at Fig. 117, is of no use. 
For instance, a taper core is needed, for which there is no 
core-box. Fig. 118 shows a method of making such a core. 
A half-circle for each end, the diameter required, — secured 
to straight-edges the length of core, — serves as guide on 
which to work the strickle. 

When proper attention is paid to the making of this 
kind of core according to instructions given, a very good 
core can be made in this manner. 

It will be seen also that any departure from a plain core 
can be easily overcome by making the strickle to form the 




Fig. 117. 



Kig. WIS. 



shape desired. Where small necks come — as they often 
do — a piece can be inserted in the frame, over which the 
strickle can pass as shown at C, Fig. 118. 

This is done because of the difficulty of dragging the 
strickle through such a body of sand, leaving the core 
rough and out of shape. 

It must also be observed that in making this core — 
should the neck be very small, and there be no suitable 
iron to make it with — that the ordinary straight iron in 
the length will be of no use, on account of being so far 
removed from the centre of the core by the intervention of 
the neck. Figs. 119 and 120 will show how to act in such 



136 



THE IRON-FOUNDER 



a case. It will be well to master the principles involved 
in this, as well as other problems suggested; for rest as- 
sured that, if your work does not turn out correct, it is 
because you are ignorant of the way it should be done; 
and just as soon as you begin to ask yourself, "Why is 
this?" and determine to master first principles in your 
business, just so soon will your work become attractive, 
and be a pleasure rather than a burden. 

A thorough workman knows from the beginning what 
the end will be, and leaves nothing to chance. 

Sometimes a round core is wanted, some out of the way 
in size, for which there is no box. Let it be 18 inches by 








Fig. 119. 



15 inches deep. Should there be a pulley pattern, or ring, 
or coupling-box, the size of core required, place the same 
on a true plate; set flask or flasks with room to ram sand 
in hard to the required depth; draw your pattern, and by 
a little care you may ram up a good core in the mould. 
After carefully digging away the sand from around the top 
edge, you may remove flasks, clean off and finish (see Fig. 
121). Should there be nothing from which you can make 
a core this way, and there should be a gig or cross and 
small spindle handy, run up a course of bricks, and sweep 
out with mud to size. When the core is rammed, pull the 
outside off carefully and you have a good core. This plan 
works well, and saves considerable in pattern-making, 
where but one is wanted from a job. Should the core be 
very large, and you have a lifting- plate suitable, the core 
can be swept at once, and the trouble of ramming saved. 



(JOKE-MAKING. 



137 



LOAM-CORES ON BARRELS. 

In my travels I have come across foundries where, in 
searching for a ring or flask in some out-of-the-way place, 
I have found old core-barrels half buried and rusting away. 
Asking the reason of their being so far away from the shop 
and why they were not in use, I have been told that the 
man who formerly made loam-cores has died, or left for 
other parts, and, there being no one else in the shop able 
to make them, they have gone back to the sand-cores. 

Now I insist that no man is a thorough core-maker who 




Fig. 120. 




Fig. 121. 



cannot make a loam-core, and, as the business is so simple, 
I will in a few words show what must be done to secure 
good cores on barrels. In the first place, I have shown, at 
Fig. 122, a perspective view of the process, from the mount- 
ing of the barrel to the finished core. Barrels for small 
cores can be made of wrought-iron pipe, J-inch holes being 
drilled irregularly along its length; for, should they be 
drilled in line, and too close together, they are apt to split 
the barrel in time; especially is this rule to be observed in 
barrels made of cast-iron. There must be a groove turned 
a short distance from each end, to fit bearing in horse, as 
shown at A, Fig. 122, so as to give a smooth, even turn, and 
insure a round core. When barrels are large, and it comes 
too expensive to make them of wrought-iron, they can be 
made of cast-iron, and the vent-holes may be cast in. A 



138 



THE IRON-FOUNDEU. 



very important feature in the casting of barrels is to have 
them strong enough; they should not be less than 1 inch 
thick for a 12-inch core. Care must be taken also to secure 
an even thickness all round, as they soon become useless 
from warping if there should be a thick and a thin side. It 
will be necessary to fit trunnions, Fig. 123, in the ends of 




Fig. 122. 



large barrels for the purpose of turning and lifting them; 
let them be as strong as possible, allowing plenty for truing 
up in the lathe, which must be done after they are secured 
to the barrel, so as to insure an even body of straw and 
loam all round the core. The best barrel for the job, all 
else being satisfactory, is that which will allow from £ 
inch to 1 inch for rope, and same for loam. And in no 
case, to save a little extra trouble with the smaller barrel, 



CORE-MAKING. 139 

choose one that will endanger the casting, on account of 
the ropes being too near the surface of the core; for, 
should your barrel be a little small, you can overcome that 
by an extra thickness of loam. But if you are making 
barrels for special use, you will be governed by the kind of 
job they are for. 

Barrels made for thin pipes, say 6 inches diameter and 
9 feet long, must be from 4 inches to 4£ inches diameter, 
on which you need only to run a little loose straw or hay. 
But should your job be a column or pipe 2 inches thick 
and 15 inches diameter, then you will require your barrel 
11 inches on the outside, to allow for about 1 inch for 
rope, and same for loam. 

We will suppose this to be the core you are going to 
make. After your barrel is ready place it in position, as 
shown at Fig. 122. You require a strong board or sweep 
that will rest on the horses, as shown in the figure, the 
front edge of which must be bevelled to almost a sharp 
edge. This board, when set to the right distance, will 
sweep the outside of core. 

Where large quantities of the same-sized cores are made, 
there must be gauges or stops made to set the board, to 
insure the correct diameter, without the trouble of measur- 
ing with the calipers. There are 2 inches to go on the 
barrel, 1 inch of which will be rope and the rest loam. In 
making the rope it would be well to consider what it is for. 
In the first place, it forms a passage for the gas to the holes 
in the barrel; and, secondly, it enables you to rub on your 
clay and loam more readily than you could do on the bare 
iron. But another important feature is that, when the 
heat has burned it out, it allows of the more easy with- 
drawal of the barrel. 

Now commence to run on the rope, which is done by 
passing the end over and around the barrel, bringing it 
under the strand, so that your rope will pass over it about 



140 THE IRON-FOUNDER. 

three times, leaving it good and tight. Be careful not to 
have your rope too close, as, when that is the case, the 
only resistance which the core offers to the pressure around 
it is the 1 inch of loam outside, there being no dependence 
to be placed on the straw, especially, as is often the case, 
if the core should get a little too much fire. By leaving a 
little space between, into which the loam can be rubbed, you 
have then as many studs as you have ropes, and conse- 
quently a good sound core. Keep the rope tight as you go, 
and when one ball is used up slacken the end you hold, as 
well as the end of the next ball; intertwine them, leaving 




Fig. 123. 

some portions to be caught as you pass on to the end. When 
there, break off your rope and twist the loose straws 
around a spike-nail, and drive it under and into the rope, 
taking care to keep it firm and tight. 

The next operation is to cover the whole of the rope with 
clay made from good clay and old sand in about equal 
quantities, after which press down the rope with a weight 
held hard down, whilst the barrel is being turned round. 
This presses in the loose straws, and scrapes off the super- 
fluous clay. After running your fingers along between the 
ropes, and scraping out the clay, you can rough up your 
core. As you have about 1 inch to go on, you must divide 
that and set your board about \ inch from the rope. 



CORE-MAKING. 



141 



Temper your loam to the right consistency, and rub it well 
on, turning slowly towards the sweep as you rub* it on. 
When covered to board as set, remove the board, and lift 
the core from the horses and run into the oven. As soon 
as this coat is dry, set back on the horses. Set the sweep 
so as to bring the core within £ inch of size; rub this coat 
well on, and when your loam is all on up to the board, 
clean off the sweep and set back ^ inch, have some finely 
sifted loam to finish off, and, after finding your size correct 
and whilst the core is being turned round, pull back the 
sweep sharply at one end, stop turning when the seam 




Fig. 124. 



caused by the board comee to the top, and your core is then 
ready for the oven. 

By observing the rules laid down it will take but a very 
short time to become an expert on loam-cores. 

In running up barrels with loose hay or straw, a little 
practice will be necessary. Commmence by rubbing a little 
clay on each end of barrel; pick up as much long straw as 
you can conveniently handle, and after making fast to one 
end as before directed, let the straw run from your hands 
on to the barrel as evenly as you can. When you come to 
the other end, if jowy hay or straw be soft and pliable, it 
can easily be made fast with clay; but should there be any 
difficulty in this have some short lengths of tie-wire to 
wrap around. Eub on the clay and press down with a 
board as it is turned, and proceed as before directed to 
cover with loam.. These cores must be no more than dry, 



142 THE IRON-FOUNDER. 

as if the straw should be burned the core would be loose 
on the barrel. 

So far I have only spoken of the plain cores, but the use 
of barrels have a much wider range than this. I have 
known shops where from six to ten men have been con- 
stantly working on jobbing pipes from 2 inches to 24 inches, 
and barrels used to the straight parts of them all; for in 
the case of elbows short turns can be made, and butted to 
the end of a loam-core. Fig. 124 shows method of making 
body-core in loam. The end of barrel stands past the 
horse ^rom 6 inches to 12 inches, to admit of the core being 




Fig. 125. 

swept up to and a little past the end of barrel; this allows 
for squaring to the body. 

When the core is up to size, the top half of space can be 
filled up with loam, and as soon as the core is sufficiently 
dry to turn over, the rest can be made good. The end 
must be well plugged, and levelled off with sand after being 
squared, to prevent the iron from making its way into the 
barrel. 

Fig. 125 shows cores together in mould. A little more 
care is needed in the anchoring in this case. Another plan 
is to fit a loose sleeve into the closed end to turn the core 
on, knocking it out when the core is finished, and plugging 
the end; but with delicate cores it does not act so well, as 
it shakes the core too much in driving out. When, on 
account of a neck coming into the core, you are obliged to 
use a very small barrel — and there should not be more than 



CORE MAKING. 143 

6 inches to go on — you may run a 1-inch rope and one coat 
of loam on, and after drying repeat the operation until you 
get the required diameter, but never put rope on rope when 
you want a good sound core. 

But should you have a core, such as an oil vessel, open 
only at the small end, — which for a figure we will say is 6 
inches diameter, the body 24 inches diameter, — some other 
plan must be adopted. Procure a barrel not more than 4 
inches diameter; insert a plug or sleeve, to turn the core 
on, into one end. Should the core be about 3 feet 6 inches 
long, cast three plates, \ inch thick, 22 inches diameter, and 
5-inch hole in centre, full of small holes to allow the gas to 
pass through to the barrel, as well as to help in breaking 
them out of the casting. Cast prickers 2 inches long on 
two of the plates, and about 1 inch from the edge cast f- 
inch holes every 3 or 4 inches. By referring to Fig. 126 the 
disposition to be made of these plates will be seen. 

After keying or wedging plates on the barrel in their 
proper place, with outside holes opposite each other, run 
some |-inch rods through the bottom holes as it rests on 
the horses, and pack large cinders and coke between the 
plates as firm as you can up to the top, placing in the rods 
as you come along. Put a small wedge in a few of the top 
rods to keep them firm, and rub some loam all over with- 
out turning the barrel. Fill in the prickers at the ends 
with stiff loam, and dry well. When dry put back on the 
horses again. A little hemp rope run on the small end 
will answer in this case, as you have only an inch to go on. 
You must now run a straw or hay rope along the body, so 
as to leave 1 inch of loam on the outside; rough it up as 
before directed, and finish. By a careful study of Fig. 126, 
which is a section of core when cut in halves, it will be at 
once seen how to make this core. It shows the plates 
keyed on the barrel, the middle plate having lugs cast on 
top and bottom .to support core in the mould, as well as to 



144 



THE IRON-FOUNDER. 



keep it down. The staple is seen on the end plate for lift- 
ing purposes. 

Should it be required to cast this on end, bolts instead 




of rods may be inserted in three or four places, equally di- 
vided, with studs between, and the whole made secure to 
the barrel by inserting pins in the holes, firmly wedging 



CORE-MAKING. 



145 



between them and the plate, as shown at A. At B will be 
seen the way to lift the core on end; this small bar must 
be inserted before you pack in the cinders. "When ready 
for the mould lift the core on the soft sand, and knock out 
the plug, being careful to clear away the loam all around it 
down to the plate; you may hitch on your hook and hoist 
on end. At C is seen the hook for anchoring down. 



r^rfti ^Ifiiirft 




1 fa p ) 


xw-vh ■ 7.1 


1 y 

8 B 



Fig. 127. 



After the core is in its place, the barrel must be filled with 
cinders to within 3 inches of the top, and the hole made 
good. 

Fig. J 27 gives elevation of a brick core cut in halves. 
This plan may be adopted with safety where it would be 
advantageous. I have built cores in this manner from 18 
inches to 36 inches diameter, and as long as 6 feet. 
Being firmly built and secured, they can be rolled over on 
the sand and lifted horizontally into the mould by the long 
bar A, or staples ■ may be cast on both top and bottom 



146 THE IRON-FOUNDER. 

plates for that purpose, as at B. Of course this plan is not 
confined to straight cores, as the brickwork can be adapted 
to any shape required. 

In conclusion, I would suggest to the learner in this 
branch of the moulder's art that he carefully and studiously 
think over the instructions given, mastering the principles 
that govern the various operations shown. By so doing he 
will be enabled to apply them every day in such a manner 
as will command a recognition only second to the best 
moulder in the foundry; in fact, I have no hesitation in 
saying that a first-class core-maker is at all times the most 
important factor in foundry economy. 



PART III. 
LOAM-MO ULDING. 



LOAM-MOULDING. 

In treating of this very important branch of the iron- 
founder's art my object is to instruct the moulder in the 
details of his business, with the view to qualifying him to 
judge for himself as to the best way of accomplishing the 
work he may be set to do. 

I am persuaded that, to qualify yourself for a loam- 
moulder, you must master the principles which govern 
the trade. This once done, every new difficulty will serve 
to sharpen the intellect, and every day's experience will 
bring new knowledge, aided by which you will rapidly pro- 
gress to the highest rank in your profession. 

It is to be deplored that so many of our moulders have 
no fixed principles on which to base their operations. 
They grope along in the dark, and are constantly wonder- 
ing how their work will turn out. I know men who are 
now working on very critical jobs, and are allowed to be 
first-class workmen, who, if they were asked to explain or 
give a reason for doing thus and so, would shrink from 
giving an answer, simply because they are ignorant, — only 
" that it has been done before." The principles upon 
which they work have been laid down by some of the 
thinking men, and these are mere copyists, I am much 

147 



148 



THE IRON-FOUNDER. 



pleased at the efforts which are being made to enlighten 
such, and hasten to add my little ray to the light which is 
being directed towards the subject. 

Loam work may be divided into three classes: namely, 
spindle, strickle, and pattern work, some jobs requiring all 
three systems for their successful working. We will at 
once commence work with the spindle on a very simple 





Fig. 126. 



Fig. 129. 



job, and, by strict attention to the instructions given, the 
rudiments of the business will be learned. 

Required : A plain cylinder, 3 feet diameter and 6 feet 
long, with head cast on 6 inch deep to receive the sullage, 
or dirt, which gathers as it is being cast (see Fig. 128). In 
the first place make foundation-plate, Fig. 129, to carry the 
whole mould. The outside diameter of this plate must be 
18 inches larger than diameter of flanges, so as to give 
bearing for cope-ring, which carries the outside of the 
mould, The diameter of hole in the centre must be about 



LOAM-MO HIDING. 



149 



18 inches smaller than the bore of cylinder, and will then 
allow of two courses of bricks in the core, should it be re- 
quired, as it is sometimes when the casting is very deep. 
Let the plate be 2 inches thick at least, and in all cases be 




Fig. 130. 



sure to have sufficient strength in the bottom plate, because 
everything must be secured to it. Have the spindle fixed 
up at some place handy to the oven, if possible, and as well 
out of the way of the green-sand floor as you can, on ac- 
count of the rubbish which is constantly being made. 



150 



THE IRON-FOUNDER 



Spindles 10 feet long can be made of 2-inch pipe, with 
one end welded up, and turned to fit the countersunk hole 
in the weight it turns in, this weight being bedded level 
with the floor. Make sure to have your spindle trued up 
good, as the truer the spindle is, the easier it is to make 
correct work. Such a spindle carefully used will serve 
your purpose as well as a solid shaft, and be much easier 
to handle. 

The bracket being fixed to hold the top of spindle per- 
fectly plumb, you are ready to commence operations. Fig. 
130 shows bottom plate resting on blocks, and it is very im- 
portant that a good foundation be made for the blocks to 




Fig. 131. 



Fig. 132. 



rest on; for, should any of the bearings sink down under 
the load, great trouble ensues. Be sure that the bracket is 
firmly erected, as no reliance can be placed on work made 
under a spindle which works loose on the top. 

The arm to which the sweep is attached may be made as 
shown at Fig. 131. It will be seen that a cap is inserted 
between the spindle and key, to preserve the spindle from 
dents. Observe that the side of arm to which the sweep is 
bolted must be on a line with centre of spindle. 

At B, Fig. 130, slot is shown for key. A good device is 
shown at Fig. 132 for securing sweeps, being a plate and 
set-screws, which has this advantage, that the moulder has 
not to hunt for a wrench every time to loosen or fasten his 



LOAM-MOULDING. 



151 



sweep. The plate can be made with any number of tapped 
holes to suit the job. 

The first sweep required is the bearing which will take 
you up to the top of bottom flange shown in Fig. 128. 
Now, as this is to be not only a bearing, but a guide 
also, and as you are required to take the impression of 
this guide in the cope, it must have a taper in its length, 




fry. 



r^vT^"'^"! 



Fig. 133. 



as shown at A, Fig. 130. By observing sweep as shown at 0, 
Fig. 130, it will be seen that it is cut past the taper, exactly 
the shape of flange. As the first operation is to strike a 
bearing, as at A, you must screw on a thin strip, as shown 
at broken line, and bring down the sweep to allow about one 
inch above brick at D. Ascertain that your sweep is square 
with the spindle and correct in diameter. You may then 



152 



THE IRON-FOUNDER. 



commence to build as shown at A, taking care that your 
bricks are not closer than half an inch to the sweep. Use 
mud made from the scrapings of the floor mixed with 
water, for building with. After the bricks are laid, rub on 
the loam and sweep off with board ; bring up the corner as 
well as you can; if necessary, hang a charcoal fire over, to 
dry it sufficient to take the finishing coat or skinning loam, 
which is the regular loam thinned down with water and 
sifted. 

A quicker way to make the skinning loam is to have the 




Fig. 134. 



Fig. 135. 



same proportions of sand without the manure, adding 
water to bring it to the proper consistency. 

You now take off the strip of wood, and, when the 
mould is hard enough, throw on a little parting-sand, and 
begin to form the flange in this manner. Have some old 
sand sifted fine and tempered, ram it on hard with the 
hands, pulling the sweep along carefully bit by bit, using 
your trowel to cut the superfluous sand away. By a little 
care you will succeed in forming the flange as shown at E. 
You must now dampen the sand a little and sleek down 
well, so as to be y 1 ^ inch clear of the sweep. You can 
now finish off with thin skinning loam. 



LOAM-MOULDING. 153 

Bearing and flange are now formed as seen at E, Fig. 130. 
The thing to be now done is to prepare it so that the im- 
pression can be taken clearly. The best way to do this is 
to go over the surface with coal-oil, and throw on parting- 
sand whilst it is wet; this makes the best separator for 
loam work. The reason for striking the flange separate on 
the bearing is because it is much easier to take the impres- 
sion this way than it would be to form it by the cope-sweep, 
as this would necessitate a finger on the bottom of the 
board, over which the bricks would have to be built, and 



Mk= 



E 



S22ZSS2 





Fig. 136. Fig. 137. Fig. 138. 



fingers or long projections from the board are to be avoided 
as much as possible. Just think this over a little; it will 
be profitable. 

The outside, or cope, is the next thing to be considered; 
to carry which a ring must be made as shown at A, Fig. 
133. Let it be f inch clear of the guide, and wide enough 
to carry an 8-inch wall, and, what is indispensable, strong 
enough to carry the cope without springing. A plan of 
this ring is shown at Fig. 134, where four lugs for lifting 
are seen, equally divided. Make it even and smooth, as it 
must rest true on your bearing, without any loam under it. 

After bedding down the ring, fasten on your sweep, as 
shown at Fig. 133. As will be seen, these sweeps are shown 
as being set against the spindle. This should save any 
measuring if they are made correct. But sweeps must be 
used, sometimes, which do not reach the spindle, in which 
case a gauge-stick must be made, and marked off to the 
correct diameter — one is shown at Fig. 135. 



154 THE IRON-FOUNDER 

You now commence to build, bringing your brickwork 
level with top of flange, where it is necessary to place your 
bricks endways in, as shown at B, Fig. 133. Rub some very 
wet loam on the under side of bricks as you lay them over 
the flange, taking care that you have at least \ inch of 
loam between the bricks and flange. 

There is a point here it would be well to notice. We 
suppose the flange in this case to be 3 inches wide, and 
would stand as shown at Fig. 136. But suppose the flange 
to be as shown at Fig. 137, 10 inches wide; it will be seen 
that the brick has no support whatever, and some other 




mode of working must be adopted. To overcome this dif- 
ficulty a ring must be made in halves, about f inch thick, 
with prickers cast on lj inch long, as seen at Fig. 138. 
Let it be made 1 inch clear of sweep, and when cleaned off, 
throw on clay-wash, and fill up level with prickers with stiff 
loam; when dry, clean off the dirt and soot, and bed down 
on the outside brickwork and over the flange, on about \ 
inch of loam. You can then go on with your building as 
usual. Now follow on with the building, and keep clear 
of the board \ inch; and, when you have built a3 far as 
will permit of your reaching the bottom, you must soften 



LOAM-MOULDING. 155 

your loam to the proper consistency, and rub it well on the 
bricks inside, sweeping off as you go. 

In building long copes it is well to have a binding course 
of whole bricks end in about every six courses. Build open 
and fill in the spaces with fine cinders, keeping the small- 
est bricks to the inside. Fig. 139 explains what I mean. 
When the bricks are all laid, and the first coat of loam 
roughed on, procure a length of strong hoop-iron with ears 
on, as seen at A, Fig. 139. If it should not be convenient 
to get the ears put on, you may bend the iron, as seen at 
B, and wind softened wire from one hook to the other, and 
give the strands a few twists with the prong of a file. 

This hoop-iron must be placed about the third course 
from the top, with mud between it and the bricks. This 
plan answers well to keep the mould stiff on such a cope as 
this, but when you have larger work, with feet, nozzles, 
lugs, etc., built in, you must cast a thin binding-ring the 
width of the brickwork to build in, in place of the hoop- 
iron. 

Before skinning up your cope with the fine loam or slip, 
go over again with some thin, coarse loam to fill up every 
crevice and hole, as the fine loam is only intended for a 
finishing coat, to enable you to make a smoother casting. 

In moulds which are too small to admit of a man work- 
ing in the inside, you must fasten a hand brush to the end 
of a long staff, and rub or plaster your slip on with it, 
working the sweep round and round until the surface is 
smooth all over. 

The spindle and sweep can now be lifted out, and the 
scaffold cleared away. Make good reliable marks at the 
bottom joint, so that in closing back your cope you will 
be sure to place it exactly where it was before. 

You now want a cross and slings to lift your mould with. 
A cheap plan to make the one shown at Figs. 140 and 141 
is to have a square block the size of the centre, and one 



156 TBE IRON-FOUNDER 

leg. By making it staple clown you may cast it open-sand. 
Amongst the tables given at the end of these articles, one 
will be found giving the strength of beams, by the use 
of which a safe estimate of the required depth and thick- 
ness may be made. The slings can be made as shown at 
Fig. 142. You now lift off the cope, setting it up high 
enough to work under. 

The next thing to be done is to build the core. Take 
away the sand which formed the flange, and set the core 
sweep. As will be seen at D, Fig. 133, this sweep rests on 
the bottom, and is the full length of core and head, 
including shrinkage. It will not be as firm as the cope- 




Fig. 140. Fig. 141. 

board was, on account of being braced at the top only; but 
you can improve that by using a temporary clip, as shown 
at E, Fig. 133, which is simply two boards, long enough 
to reach from spindle to sweep, through the centre of 
which a half-inch bolt is screwed tight. It will be neces- 
sary to use the gauge-stick (Fig. 133) in setting this board, 
this being much more reliable than the rule. Build a few 
double courses at the bottom, crossing the joints as you go; 
build up to the clip, and then rough and finish this part of 
the core. The reason for doing this is that, by finish- 
ing the bottom of core whilst the clip is on, the correct 
diameter will be secured, as well as being perfectly round 
(something very difficult to accomplish when the sweep 



LOAM-MOULDING. 157 

swings loose from the top), and serves as a guide to finish 
the top of the core by. When the rest of the core is built, 
and before yon rub on the loam, tie it in two or three 
places with soft wire; this keeps the brickwork firm, and 
resists the jar caused by running in and out of the oven. 
The reason for building double bricks at the bottom 
is because the greatest pressure comes on at the bottom, 
and, unless extra precautions are taken, the core is pressed 
in and the hole is much too small, giving considerably 
more work in the boring than is required. 

Your core being skinned up, you must now turn your 
attention to the portion of cope from top of flange, shown 
from B to C, Fig. 128. This part must be formed in the 
covering-plate, and will rest on both cope and core. To 
accomplish this you require another plate, the outside 
diameter of which will be the same as the brickwork 



Fig. 142. 

at the top flange, whilst the inner diameter will correspond 
to the inside of brickwork of core. Figs. 143 and 144 show 
plan and elevation of plate with sweep in position. It will 
be seen at Fig. 143 that provision is made for running, these 
holes being cast in so that the gates can be set over 
the centre of thickness. The prickers are shown, between 
which bricks must be built. As this sweep corresponds 
with the cope-board in its diameter, that would be the 
guide in laying out the plate, making sure of an inch clear 
of the sweep. The small prickers are 1^ inches long, and 
can be rammed hard with dry-sand facing, but the bricks 
between the long prickers must be roughed up with loam, 
and then all can be skinued up together. When stiffened 
sufficiently, the gates can be cut through, 



158 



THE IRON-FOUNDER. 



By referring to F, in Fig. 133, you will observe how 
the guide is made to insure the correct position of the 
covering-plate. By leaving a square edge same distance 
from centre on the covering-plate, as seen at F, Fig. 144, 
the two parts can be closed as accurately as if you had the 
inside of the mould to go by. This system of guides will 
answer in all cases where they can be swept on. 

To facilitate the laying out of the gates, a small notch 
must be cut in the top plate-sweep, as shown at A, Fig. 144, 
so that, when you strike on the skinning loam, there will 
be a ridge all around, corresponding with the diameter of 





Fig. 143. 



Fig. 144. 



core (suppose the casting to be 2 inches thick, this mark 
would be 2 inches from the outside). It is important that 
care should be taken. in this, so as to avoid striking either 
cope or core. Should your covering-plate for other work 
be without any portion of the mould to guide you in this 
particular, any number of notches may be cut for the pur- 
pose of showing the thickness. (See Fig. 145.) 

It is important that the gates be well distributed around 
the cylinder, as the more gates you have the cleaner will be 
the casting, as they serve to break up and keep in motion 
the scum which rises as the casting is being poured. A 
larger hole is shown, which serves as a riser or feeding 



LOAM MOULDING. 



159 



head. It is not possible at all times to gate the mould 
evenly all around; should there be cores or projections 
in the way, provision must be made for this when the 
cover-plate is made, and the holes placed where they will 
miss them. 

You must now finish the several parts ready for the 
oven. First go over the skinned parts of the cope with 
such tools as are needed to fit the different parts of the 
mould, taking care not to alter the shape. Should any part 
have become too hard to finish easily, brush a little water 
over, to moisten the surface. 

A different operation is needed at the bottom flange. 




Fig. 145. 



After cleaning off the parting-sand which adheres to 
the loam, and scraping it true, rub up the surface by 
brushing over some thin skinning loam, and with a rub- 
bing-stick, in the form of a segment of the flange, scrub it 
evenly all around. When the skin made by the oil is 
thoroughly broken, and the surface is good and true, brush 
a little skinning loam all over, and finish with the proper 
tools, as before. Never use tools unsuitable, as the mould 
would be all humps and hollows. If you have not the 
proper tools, it will be better to make the mould as good 
as possible with the rubbing-sticks, which is very often 



160 THE IRON-FOUNDER. 

clone. Pay particular attention to the core; whatever 
fixing is required, let it be done with the rubbing-stick 
alone, which in this case would be a piece of soft wood 
18 inches X 3 inches X 2 inches. 

My reasons for so much caution in the use of tools are 
these: First, there is danger of losing the original design 
from the unskilful use of them. Second, the least use 
you make of them, the less danger of scabbing, as repeated 
smoothing brings the clay to the surface in thin, hard 
cakes, which usually comes off in thin scabs when the 
casting is poured. 

Blacking the parts is to be next considered. 

This is a very important feature in the trade, as, no 
matter how much pains may have been taken in other 
ways to secure a handsome casting, it will be all marred by 
not having the right mixture of blacking for your job, and 
using it in the right way when it is made. For the job in 
hand, and all other work of a similar kind, the following 
mixture will be suitable : 

Blacking mixture for general work, from f inch to 4 
inches thick. 

To 1 of best mineral add \ of best heavy charcoal, 
\ of XX silver lead, \ of hard Lehigh blacking. Wet with 
clay-water that will just color the hand, but be sure and 
not overdo with clay; mix well, and pass through a fine 
sieve. 

In blackening your mould use flat brushes, as they lay 
the blacking more evenly than the others; cover the 
surface of the cope to the depth of T 1 g inch, and finish 
carefully with your tools, taking care not to slick any 
more than is necessary. When the mould is nicely 
finished, you can paint it all over with a thin mixture 
of XX silver lead and molasses water, using a flat camel's- 
hair brush for the purpose. 

In blackening the core, brush on evenly ^ inch thick, 



LOAM-MOULDING. 161 

leaving as few brush marks as possible, but do not attempt 
to slick it. Cores must never be slicked, because, the sur- 
face being convex, the skin of the loam is easily loosened 
with the tools, and a scabbed core is the result. You may 
slick the flange face at the bottom of the core, and go over 
with the lead-wash as on the cope, but the body of the 
core will not need it. 

The covering-plate being finished after the manner 
described, the whole of the parts must be thoroughly 
dried. When dry, have the pit in which your mould 
will be closed for casting dug deep enough to leave about 
3 feet above the floor. 

By a careful examination of Figs. 146 and 147, the method 
of closing, binding, and ramming will be seen. A and B 
are the guides, C is the floor-line, D the cross on which 
are hung the slings E, which are set under the bottom 
lugs F, and made taut by hoisting on the cross. When all 
is snug, and every sling is tight, packings G must be 
set under the cross on top plate H, and wedged securely 
between, taking care that the wedges bed close to cross 
and packing. 

I would here observe that wedges should never be put in 
singly where it can be avoided, and wrought-iron is always 
preferable to cast, on account of the liability of the latter 
to snap, thereby endangering the success of your work. 

The cross can now be lowered off, leaving the mould 
firmly bound together. The joints A, B, I must now be 
stopped in safe by rubbing in thin mud, and all is ready 
to commence ramming. 

At J, K, L, M curbs of wrought-iron are shown; they 
may be from -^ inch to ^ inch thick, according to the 
class of work they are needed for; the lengths may vary 
from 8 to 10 feet. 

It is well to have a few shorter ones, as they are handy 
for shortening up or lengthening out, as may be required. 



162 



THE IRON-FOUNDER. 



Have the holes punched for ^-inch bolts, snug fit, about 
1J inches from the end; about four holes in a 2-foot 
plate, and three in a 1-f oot-6-inch. Use washers in bolting, 
and be sure that you screw them up close. A few stronger 
plates may be kept for the bottom course of deep moulds, 




Fig. 146. 



with an extra bolt-hole in. In ramming, judgment must 
be used, so as to save labor. As the greatest pressure 
comes on the bottom, let the ramming be extra firm at the 
lower courses, decreasing gradually as you come to the 
top. The moulder, or some trustworthy man, will superin- 



LOAM-MO ULDINO. 



163 



tend this part of the work, using a pin rammer close to the 
bricks, the rest with flat rammers, keeping 3 inches back. 
The monotony of the labor will be considerably lessened by 
all hands keeping time as they ram. 

It will be seen in Figs. 146 and 147 how to make the 
runner. As shown, a few courses of brick are laid up to 
the inside of top plate, to keep in the sand, or a ring" of 
iron may be set on for that purpose, if there is one handy. 
As seen at 0, the riser is much larger than the runners. 




Fig. 147. 



Keep the plug in the riser when you pour, and have a man 
ready with a rod to lift it out as soon as the iron touches it. 
Be sure to have a few shavings down at the bottom of core, 
and light them before you commence to pour; this serves 
to rarefy the cold air in the core, and makes it easier for 
the gas to escape as you cast. Some moulders say, keep 
all risers open, and allow the gas to free itself from the 
mould, thereby insuring a cleaner casting; but I am of 
the opinion, that whatever good it serves in that direction 



164 THE IRON-FOUNDER. 

is more than neutralized by the consequence of such a 
method. By keeping all risers closed, the air inside the 
mould is confined, the expansion of which (as soon as the 
iron enters) serves a very good purpose; pressing as 
it does on all its parts, and binding the surface firmly 
to the brickwork; whilst, on the other hand, if they 
are left open, the draught and roar act in the opposite 
way, creating a suction which draws off the surface, and 
causes scabs and buckles. 

I have been describing the method of ramming moulds 
in curbs, but, as I well know, all shops do not have them, 
and must in consequence ram in the floor. Where such 
is the case (and a pit has to be dug where it is the most 
convenient) make sure that you dig back to good, solid 
ground, no matter how much extra time it takes. If this 
should be neglected, it matters little how much you 
ram around the bricks; there is great danger of giving 
way, and the casting being lost. So that, considering the 
risk you run, and the small cost of curbs, it will be readily 
seen that the safest method will in the end be the cheap- 
est. Some have bricked pits, which are good for special 
work; but when your job is much smaller than the pit, 
and you must fill the extra space with sand, to be thrown 
out again, curbs would save money. 



HOW TO MAKE A CYLINDER WITH STEAM-WAYS, FOOT 
AND END CAST ON. 

My object in using the plain cylinder as the first lesson 
was that I might be able to fully explain the rudiments of 
the trade, as well as to give some idea of the use of mate- 
rials and tools required ; and presuming that you are suffi- 
ciently well drilled to make a plain casting in loam, I will 
now take up something a little more difficult to make. 
The task before you is chosen on account of the facility it 



LOAM-MOULDING. 



165 



offers for bringing into play principles which, if firmly 
grasped, will enable you to understand what you are 
doing, and qualify you for work still more critical. 

Fig. 148 is a sectional view of cylinder cut through at 




Fig. 148. 




Staple 



'Nut 
Plan at B, Fig. 148. 

the middle, showing the mode of making the same. You 
will observe that the end is cast on, which necessitates 
another kind of bearing and cope-ring. 

Fig. 149 shows cope-ring with extension on front to carry 
the steam-chest (see that you do not cover one of the bottom 
lugs when you place it on the seating). Sometimes it 
is necessary to lift the core of this class of work, in which 



166 



THE IRON-FOUNDER. 



case a seating must be struck as shown at A, Fig. 148. B 
shows lifting-plate with studs cast on to meet plate for 
bottom of core. C shows covering-plate with hook-bolts 
for securing B to C. Fig. 150 is a plan of plate C, show- 
ing holes for hook-bolts to come through, and staples for 
securing the whole to lifting-plate. D, Fig. 151, shows 
plan for same. As seen at Fig. 148, the bearing is first 
struck to E, after which the flange is struck and cope 
built. Sometimes you will have to set the foot and chest 




Fig. 149. 



to drawing, but, as the pattern-maker is usually on hand 
at this juncture, you will get along all right by his assist- 
ance; but a good plan, and one that insures absolute 
correctness, is to have a bottom flange made to rest on 
bearing at E, on which a frame can be constructed with 
four uprights tied by another flange on top ; to this frame 
can be attached anything you may have to cast on the 
body. After centring the frame and securing it you can 
(by the use of a guide-stick reaching from flange to flange) 
build up your mould ; after which, when you have taken out 
the top flange and uprights, you can fasten your sweep to 
the spindle and strike up the cope. 



LOAti-MOTJLblNG. 



167 



In building this cope on the foot side you will observe 
irons, which must reach from side to side to support the 
bricks above the foot as well as to tie the small space 
below, and in all confined spaces place a few straws and 
bring them to the outside, taking care to carry all such 
vents up to the top when the mould is rammed up. At F 
is seen a plate which is needed to carry the overhanging 
brickwork. A bearing must be left all round the foot, 
against which you place a core cake or plate when you 
close the mould. Don't forget the guide around the 





Fig. 150. 



Fig. 151. 



top; and cinder the joints of the bricks well. On the 
opposite side you will observe more need for care in secur- 
ing across and behind the flanges. Suitable spaces must 
also be left for bolting back the core s and securing the 
vents. 

The covering-plate differs, as you will see, from the last 
one; as in this case the body core comes through, making 
it necessary to cast slots in the inner edge for the runners, 
as seen at Fig. 152. The inside diameter of top covering- 
plate, when swept, must be a little slack of the body-core, 
to insure it slipping on without damaging the mould. 
After the cope is lifted away, take off the finger which 
is screwed on the seating-board, spoken of in connection 
with bottom flange, and shown by dotted lines in Fig. 130, 
and sweep on the bearing the thickness of the inner 



168 



THE IRON-FOUNDER. 



bottom flange with old sand, as before described. It 
is well that you cover the prickers of the bottom core- 
plate C with stiff loam, and dry it in the oven before you 
come to this point, so that it will be ready for use when you 
want it; care must be taken to keep the prickers clear of 
the places which must meet the studs in plate B. In mak- 
ing the small plate B, have your studs long enough to reach 
the face of core-plate C, allowing 1J inches for prickers 
and J inch for loam. You now oil the small seating and 




- Bricks 



Fig. 152. 



set in plate B, bed it down solid with no loam under; 
brick up firmly, bedding the bricks well down level with 
the top of flange, clean off the core-plate C, turn it 
over, and see that it rests fair on the studs; after satis- 
fying yourself on this point, and observing the thickness of 
loam required under the plate, — which, as stated before, 
must not exceed ^ inch, — rub a little soft loam on the plate 
C, and bed down on a bed of soft loam, making sure that 
you touch iron and iron on the studs. You must now put 
on your nuts, and screw them firmly together. 



LOAM-MOULDING. 



169 



Another plan is to cast nuts in plate B instead of 
staples, and threading both ends of the bolt. You now 
set the core-sweep and run up the core as shown in Fig. 148. 
The top plate, D, is bedded on and screwed down after the 
core is swept. By this method you are at liberty to close 
your mould either by lowering cope over core or lowering 
body-core in last, which is to be preferred in some 
instances. 

Should it not be required to lift the core out, a method 
is shown at Fig. 153. As will be seen, the bearing for core 
comes level with the top of thickness at A, by build- 
ing studs up from bottom plate level with bearing, and 
casting studs on core-plate (to meet them) as much lower 
than the prickers as there will be thickness of loam. In 





Fig. 153. 



Fig. 154. 



this case you may build as much of the bearing as you 
need for building the cope, as shown by dotted line at 
B. When the cope is lifted away you can build the 
remainder of the bearing, finish, aud blacken. The bot- 
tom core-plate in this instance you may either ram up 
with dry-sand facing, or sweep it with loam level with the 
studs; after this is dry, finish and blacken, and, when 
turned over, rest it in its place, stud over stud. This may 
be bolted down through the centre when the spindle is 
withdrawn. You can now fill up the flange space with 
waste, and build the core. 



1?0 THE iRON-FOUNbfflt 

In large cores, where bearing sufficient can be had to 
support the core with safety, the studs can be omitted; 
but be very sure before you venture on a core of this kind 
without them. 

It will be observed that this body core comes through 
the top plate; consequently it must be secured under 
the cross before casting, in the same manner as directed 
for cope. Fig. 148 shows the whole set of cores divided at 
the centre of the exhaust; this is a good plan when 
the whole set would be too bulky, After the chaplet 
is set to the correct thickness the bottom half can be 
placed in and bolted back, after which the top half can be 
set to its place very readily, and secured in the same 
manner. Where cores can be thus made, it is far the best 
and safest; but when (as is often the case) you must have 
all the cores separate, be sure and have your prints a 
good length, retaining the thickness between the port and 
exhaust on the port core; by so doing you will add 
strength to the port core, and make it safer to handle. 
Fig. 154 explains what I mean. 

For cores which are made separately, have the irons 
bent to shape, and cast them into cast-iron prints, that 
will enter the core-box slack; the vent-holes must be cast 
in, also the staple for bolting back. Be sure in all cases 
to arrange your brickwork so as to be able to get at your 
joints and vents handily; and use pipes for leading away 
the vent wherever you can, as it is the safest. 



MOULDING IN LOAM, FROM A COMPLETE PATTERN 171 



MOULDING IN LOAM, FROM A COMPLETE 

PATTERN. 

It is safe to say that if good loam-moulders were as 
numerous as good green-sand moulders, failures would be 
less frequent; and also that castings of a higher type of 
finish would adorn our engine-rooms and factories, as well 
as public edifices. There is undoubtedly a limit to the 
practicability of moulding in green sand owing to the 
instability of the materials used, as well as to the inade- 
quacy of such materials to resist the enormous pressures at 
work in moulds of considerable magnitude; and, conse- 
quently, we look in vain for a reproduction, in the casting, 
of the even surfaces and symmetrical curves of the pattern ; 
for, from the above-stated causes, all evidence of previous 
design in the pattern is often entirely obliterated. In 
addition to this may be mentioned the extra labor which 
such imperfect work entails on the machinist at the parts 
which have been prepared for external fittings; also bored 
surfaces, which suffer on account of the accumulations of 
dirt and scum, which always form in greater abundance in 
green-sand moulds than is the case in either dry sand or 
loam. Examined from this standpoint, it becomes a ques- 
tion whether, in a large majority of cases, the loam casting 
is not the cheapest, exclusive of the fact of its superiority 
of finish over the one made in green sand. 

Critically speaking, we consider the limit of green-sand 
moulding to be reached when the moulder fails to accurately 
duplicate the pattern he moulds from. Just how far this 
limit is exceeded, from mercenary and other motives, may 
be discovered by a careful survey of our public buildings, 
where a considerable percentage of cast-iron has entered 



172 THE IRON-FO UNDER. 

into their construction. To one acquainted with the tricks 
of the trade, it is easy to find lifter and tool-marks in 
abundance; places where scabs and swells have been 
imperfectly removed with the chisel can be readily traced; 
mouldings and figures imperfectly finished; in fact,, botch 
jobs in most cases, for the simple reason that the founder 
had attempted to accomplish on a soft, yielding surface of 
green sand that which only a hard, unyielding surface of 
loam would have accomplished. 

Massive castings, which, if made in green sand, would 
be full of complications and intricate to mould, and, very 
often, for the want of ability, unsafe, become in many 
instances comparatively simple jobs, and easy of manipu- 
lation if made in loam, requiring less intelligence, as a 
rule, to make both a safe mould and a creditable casting. 

To meet these emergencies, dry sand is sometimes 
resorted to; but this method also has its limits, either 
because the several parts needed for the construction of 
the mould cause undue expense, or the casting, if too 
ponderous, would require flasks too large for safe handling. 
To obviate this latter difficulty, recourse is frequently had 
to bedding in the floor, using dry sand materials for its 
construction, and drying the mould where it is made with 
improvised ovens or fire-pans; but as this is only a make- 
shift, and not unfrequently a poor one, we shall not dwell 
upon it. 

I am willing to admit that very many of the heavy 
castings required for mill and forge works, building pur- 
poses, and all such as call for strength only, may with 
propriety be made in green sand; but when along with 
strength beauty must be combined, then look about for 
the best method to meet the dual demand, and, when all 
the pros and cons have been gone over, I conjecture that a 
loam mould will be decided upon as the safest and best for 
the job. 



MOULDING IN LOAM, FROM A COMPLETE PATTERN. 173 

To most moulders the idea of making a piece in loam 
when the entire pattern is supplied seems ridiculous; but a 
little consideration of the superior advantages offered by 
this method will soon dispel this illusion. Again, how 
often we see castings made on end in loam, at great risk 
and much additional cost to the founder, simply' because, 
perhaps, one tenth of the outside mould can be swept by 
the spindle; when, if a few lags had been attached to the 
patterns (which must be made in any case), an entire 




Fig. 155. 



pattern would be obtained from which to mould on its flat 
in such position as would best meet the several require- 
ments of the job. 

Many founders object to loam work because of their 
limited oven space, forgetting that increased facility in 
that particular would enhance their ability to accomplish 
larger and better work, and thus secure to themselves a 
more extended patronage. Self-interest ought to suggest 
the propriety of being able to make the finest castings, 
and, having once secured that reputation, there need be 
no fear for their success. Another objection is that too 



174 THE IRON-FOUNDEB. 

much floor-space is required for its production; this objec- 
tion can, I think, be easily disposed of, as in most cases 
jobs which, if made in green sand, would cripple the shop 
for days or perhaps weeks, might be built in loam some- 
where aside and convenient to crane and oven, floor-space 
only beiiig required to pit and cast the mould. 

No good green-sand moulder need shrink from the task 
of moulding in loam; for, rest assured, the difficulties are 
only apparent. It is not by any means hard to make excel- 
lent loam-moulders out of such as are well skilled in green 
sand, simply because they have become accustomed to con- 
struct moulds out of material far more yielding and flexible 
than that with which the loam-moulder works. There is 
a decided difference when the opposite task is attempted: 
the loam-moulder soon discovers the lack of rigidity in the 
sand compared with the dried loam he has been accustomed 
to, and invariably retires in disgust. 

I will now endeavor to point out the main features in 
the construction of a first-class loam mould. First, decide 
at what parts of the pattern the several divisions must be 
made in order to an easy separation of the walls, due atten- 
tion at the same time being paid to the closing together of 
both outside walls and internal cores. Choose the best 
method of pouring, and arrange for gates in the brickwork 
or plates, or both if needed. Calculate your ability to 
transport the parts of the mould, and build accordingly. 

In making plates for carrying the several parts, observe 
the very important rule of having them strong enough, and 
arrange lugs and lifting staples in such order as will secure 
an even distribution of the weight. When practicable, have 
all core-irons of sufficient strength to resist upward pressure 
when secured at the ends. This, of course, necessitates the 
casting of lugs on all plates at such places as will best meet 
this requirement. Study to avoid as much as possible the 
use of studs exposed naked to the iron, always preferring 



MOULDING IN LOAM, FROM A COMPLETE PATTERN. 175 

to make a safe job by some other method, even at the 
expense of a little extra time; by the exercise of a little 
ingenuity in this direction serious flaws in the casting may 
often be prevented. 

The accompanying drawings and views represent the 
water end of a high-duty pumping-engine, such as are 
made by the firm of Henry R. Worthington. Fig. 155 is a 
sectional view, and Figs. 156 and 157 are end elevations. 





Fig. 156. 



Fig. 157. 



The casting weighs from 8 to 10 tons, according to thickness. 
Castings of this class call for a high degree of finish, inas- 
much as they are exposed to view, whilst the steam-cylinders 
are usually covered with ornamental lagging. 

A careful study of Fig. 158 will be all that is needed to 
fully understand the mode of procedure in the early stages 
of this job. The entire pattern is seen to rest on a bed of 
loam spread evenly over a course of bricks (previously laid), 
immediately underneath it. This course of bricks is set 
back from the edge of the pattern to allow loam sufficient 
with which to form the joint A along the bottom flange. 
Flange B and suction-chamber Care detachable from the 
body, as are all. ribs, brackets, hubs, etc. 



176 



THE IRON-FOUNDER. 



The arrangement is to build the bottom half of both ends 
as permanent structures on the foundation-plate, as seen at 
D, Fig. 158, and A, Fig. 159, where in both cases only a 




Fig. 158, 



portion is shown as built. The separation is made central 
with the prints E, Fig. 158, and B, Fig. 159, the building be- 
ing continued on the lifting-plates i^and C, as shown in the 
respective figures. Hook bolts, set in the staples shown, 
serve to bind these walls firmly to the top plates after the 
manner seen at G, Fig. 158, and D, Fig. 159. 



MO ULBINQ IN LOAM, FROM A COMPLETE PA TTERN. 1 77 



A careful examination of the view of pattern will show 
why the plate D f Fig. 159, is set below the top. Provision 
in this case must be made for a joint round the face of 
branch H\ therefore the plate D must be set below the 




flange, and the brickwork continued above in such form as 
will permit of easy access to the branch when the mould is 
closed. The method for lifting these ends is clearly shown, 
and it will be noticed that Fig. 159 is a reversed view of 
Fig. 158, which allows a full representation of each end in 
preparation, as well as completed. 



178 TEE IRON-FOUNDER. 

Observe that, as the ends are built, the joint against 
which the sides abut must be formed, strict attention being 
paid to the necessary taper for easy separation. The sides 
are shown as built up to the flange in Fig. 159, the method 
of carrying them being in all respects similar to that shown 
for the ends. Plate I, Fig. 159, rests on a loam bottom 
against the lower joint A; bolts at the staples shown con- 
nect with plate E, Fig. 159, in which plate-handles are cast 
for lifting, as seen at A, Fig. 160. This figure shows the 
whole arrangement in section. 

As seen at G, Fig. 159, and B, Fig. 160, another joint is 
here formed, and the building continued up to the top of 
suction-chamber 7, Fig. 159, and C, Fig. 160. Plates such 
as shown at F, Fig. 159, serve to carry this brickwork, and 
are secured, as before explained, by bolts to the top plate, 
as shown at Figs. 159 and 160. In order to a quick separa- 
tion of the parts when all is built, have the plates F, Fig. 
159, covered with loam, level with the prickers, and dried; 
the dry loam will absorb enough moisture from the soft 
loam upon which it is bedded to admit of almost immediate 
separation. To form the mould over the suction-chamber, 
lay thin bars across from pier to pier against each course 
of brick as they are being laid (on soft loam), as seen at J, 
Fig. 159, and D, Fig. 160. The top plate at J, Fig. 159, is 
cut midway to expose this method in section, whilst at Fig. 
160 the bar is seen resting on the piers. 

Enough of detail is shown in these illustrations to give 
a clear understanding of the whole process of moulding 
such a casting in loam, and renders any further explanation 
superfluous. As before stated, all the parts beiug detach- 
able, such as would interfere with an easy separation of the 
mould are, of course, to be loosened and allowed to come 
away with the cheeks. 

After marking all the joints, the ends are lifted away; 
then the top separates at B_, Fig. 160; after which flange B, 



MOULDING W LOAM, FROM A COMPLETE PATTERN. 179 

Fig. 158, is lifted out, the sides taken away, and the pattern 
withdrawn. The portion of flange which extends past the 
end at K, Fig. 159, is made loose, built in the end, and 
drawn out after the pattern has been lifted out. 

The lugs shown on the ends of the foundation-plate can 
be utilized for bolting down the body core, and should it 
be thought necessary to hold down the middle, have holes 
in the core-iron to correspond with other holes in the 




Fig. 160. 



foundation-plate directly in line with the centre of one or 
more of the valve-cores, through which a bolt or bolts can 
be passed and thus secured. 

These instructions are given, not only to show how to 
make this particular casting, but also to lead the minds of 
the uninitiated in the direction for grasping the under- 
lying principles which govern the art of loam-moulding, 
which, if rightly understood, as exhibited in this example, 
their 'application to other classes of work becomes easy; 
for, with very slight modifications of the methods herein 
displayed, almost every emergency may be successfully met. 



180 THE IRON-FOUNDER. 



TO MOULD KETTLES AND PANS IN LOAM, WITH 
FULL INSTRUCTIONS FOR CASTING BOTTOM 
UP OR BOTTOM DOWN. 

Fig. 161 is a sectional elevation of an 8-foot kettle, If 
inches thick, showing the cope closed over core. 

In commencing a job like this, let particular attention 
be paid to the selection of a foundation-plate, making sure 
that it is strong enough to lift the core without springing. 
If the plate is plain, as shown at A, it should be at least 3 
inches thick; but should you have to make one, let it be 
after the design shown at B, and 2 inches thick. The sweep 
first used forms the core, strikes the bottom of flange, also 
the seating or guide, and bearing for cope-ring. Build the 
core with open, coarse mud, keeping the bricks well apart 
to allow the air to pass freely from the surface. Use half- 
bricks on the upper course, crossing the joints all along, 
and putting in a tie-course here and there, as shown at 0. 
After the bricks are all laid, clean them off well, and 
scrape down into the joints. This will help to hold the 
loam firmly to the bricks. Use your loam soft, rubbing it 
well on the bricks, and sweeping off as you go around. 
For the finishing or skimming coat it is best to use the 
same loam, sifted fine. Your loam being hard enough, 
take off the thickness, strip, and strike on the thickness, 
which is done thus: Have some old sand, at the regular 
green-sand temper, sifted fine; start at the bottom, ram- 
ming it on hard with your hand, using the sweep carefully 
so as not to drag down the sand. After you have struck 
on the thickness of sand, dampen a little and slick all over, 
leaving it clear of the sweep about ^ inch, taking care to 
trim the corner of flange by pressing it down all around 



TO MOULD KETTLES AND PANS IN LOAM. 181 

with your trowel, so as to insure a sharp edge when you 
skin up. 

It is well to make sure of enough skinning loam before 
you commence, as there is no time to be mixing more 
(should you be short) after you have once commenced, on 
account of the old sand absorbing the water so quick and 
leaving the surface hard; it must therefore be finished at 
the first pass round, if possible. 

When the thickness is hard enough to work on, oil all 




Fig. 161. 



over and throw on parting sand. You now set on the cope- 
ring, and commence to build the cope, as shown. It will 
be observed that two ways of building the cope are shown, 
— one with building-rings, and the other all brick. By 
placing rings as shown at D, E, and F, and packing 
between them, as seen at G and H, you can bind down the 
mould as soon as it is closed, packing under the cross at / 
and /. This I consider the best and safest plan. 

But you can build your mould, as shown, without rings, 



182 THE mON-FOiJNDEB. 

in which case more care is required in the ramming. 
When you have rammed the mould as high as shown at D, 
a plate must he bedded on the sand, taking care that it is 
good and solid underneath. Packing must be placed on 
this plate in suitable places for wedging under the cross. 
After ramming a little above the top, another plate must 
be bedded down clear of the runners, and both firmly 
bound down with the cross or binders. The gates and 
riser are shown. The riser being on the top, a sufficient 
number of f -inch runners, to run the mould full at a lively 
rate, must be arranged around it, forming a circle about 
30 inches diameter. 

Do not keep the riser open when you cast, but after 
making your basin for the flow-off, fill it with soft straw or 
hay, and place over the hay a dry brick or two, or a piece 
of core to keep it down. This answers a good purpose, 
inasmuch as it does not prevent the gas from escaping 
from the mould; but it does prevent that rush of expanded 
air which, when the riser is left open, so often damages the 
crown of the kettle. 

Another important matter is to carry off the gas from 
underneath a hollow mould. T have tried many ways, but 
prefer the one of making a gutter or trench from the 
centre of the pit to the outside, in two places, opposite each 
other if possible. Let the gutter run on a gentle slope to 
the centre. Should the mould be rammed in the pit, con- 
nect these gutters with pipes leading to the top, and just 
before you cast pour down a little iron so as to reach the 
centre. This warms and expands the air inside and 
creates a draught, along which the gas from the core will 
travel safely. 

One great evil of which I would warn moulders is the 
placing of a great quantity of shavings and wood in the 
trench and along the bottom. 

These taking fire instantly throw such a sudden heat up 



TO MOULD KETTLES AND PANS IN LOAM. 183 

to the brickwork as to expand the core and loosen the 
loam. The consequence is a badly seamed core; or, as I 
have seen more than once, the casting is lost altogether. 

When lugs, eyes, brackets, etc., are to be cast on the 
outside they may, in many instances be rammed up in a 
core and the core built in at the proper place ; but if the 
pattern must be bricked in the cope, let the thickness- 
sweep be nicked at the height required : this leaves a mark 
all round, and it is then easy to set off to right position, 
according to drawing. 

TO MAKE A KETTLE BOTTOM DOWN. 

Fig. 162 is a sectional elevation of lead kettle at half its 
diameter, and shows at a glance the method of building 
cope and core. The branch core is seen secured by chap- 
lets, with core-cake closed on at the end. The engraving 
represents a kettle 7 feet 6 inches diameter, 3 feet 9 inches 
deep. A strong foundation is required for this job, as a 
great weight is to be carried, the brickwork, as shown, reach- 
ing to the outside all the way up. The first sweep used in 
this case forms the outside, on which (when hard enough) 
the thickness is swept. Let the brickwork be very open, 
and use plenty of cinders, leading a vent to the outside 
from every course. This serves to carry off the steam 
when drying, as well as to give vent to the gas when cast. 

At A is seen the bottom plate of core, which, when 
made, care must be taken in pushing in the prickers, so as 
to have them the correct depth and position. The staples 
must be set so as to come directly under the inside lug of 
covering plate, as shown. This plate, when made, must be 
turned over, and the prickers packed with cinders to about 
3 inches from the point, loam and brick filling the rest. 
You now dry this, after which it can be cleaned off well, 
so that no soot clings to it, and if (as stated above) care 



184 THE IRON-FOUNDER 

has been taken to keep the form of bottom, it will be easily 
bedded on about f inch of soft loam, which must be spread 
on the thickness. Lay your bricks as seen until you come 
to plate B, A glance at the engraving will be sufficient to 
show why the rings B and C are used. The broken line 
E shows that most of the core to be built hangs past the 
plate A. The inner edge of ring B, being supported by 
plate A, carries the brickwork up to ring C, which, being 
supported by ring B, carries you past the curve, where the 
core is almost straight, and there is no need for further 
support. These rings can be cast thin, and bedded down 
on soft mud. A plan of top covering plate is shown at 
Fig. 164, leaving out the four lugs to which centre is 
attached, and the two swivels which are shown for another 
purpose, as will be seen further on. The only lugs 
required in this case are the four inside, for bolting core 
up to, and the four outside, for lifting. 

Two methods are suggested for the top plate. One is to 
dry a thickness of loam in the pricker, and bed down on 
soft loam on the joint, and over the brickwork of core at 
the same time; this is the best plan, as it insures absolute 
correctness of fit. The other plan is to strike top of core 
level with outside joint, and after the covering plate is 
swept with the spindle and dried, it is turned over and laid 
on. Let the covering plate be cast strong. The one 
shown has flanges cast on both inner and outer edges, and 
makes a good plate out of the same quantity of iron which, 
if cast into a plain plate, would be useless for the job. 
Before screwing bottom and top together, let studs be set 
in between, as shown at F, and take care they are not too 
tight before you screw up, as you require to have a good 
grip on the mould. This core may be finished overhead 
and set into the oven in the same position, saving the 
trouble of rolling over. 

The method described serves well where the kettle has 



TO MOULD KETTLES AND PANS IN LOAM. 185 

branches or lugs cast on, and when the order does not 
exceed one or two. But should there be an order of plain 
kettles to make, the cope may remain rammed in the pit 
after the first one is cast, by securing a centre to the 



Fig. 162. 




3 



%///)///////a BJ ^A^^ 




WW. \J\f\\ 



cU=» 



Fig. !G4. 



Fig 163. 



bottom plate at G, sweeping it up where it rests, and dry- 
ing with a good fire-pan. 

The plan for top plate in this case is seen at Fig. 164, 
and includes, in addition to the lugs for bolting core to, 
four others, to which a centre must be bolted, as shown, 
and swivels for turning over by. 

Fig. 163 shows top plate with centre attached, set on 



186 THE IRON-FOUNDER. 

stands, with spindle and core-sweep in place. This centre 
remains a fixture. Let the core be built after the manner 
shown at Fig. 162, and firmly bolted. If strict attention is 
paid to the bolts at every cast, and the core lifted from the 
casting before the shrinkage comes on, you can make a 
great number of kettles from these moulds; and because 
with the fixed centres you have nothing to do but clean off 
well, and sweep off at once, they can be made very rapidly 
and cheaply. In fact, it is neither more nor less than an 
extemporized casing. 

Good kettles can also be made from a core made in this 
manner substituting a green-sand bottom for the one in 
loam. But it would not be well to drop the iron from the 
top in this case : better to set one or more draw-runners at 
the bottom, as shown at broken lines, Fig. 162. 



CASINGS FOR KETTLES AND PANS, AND HOW 
TO MAKE THEM. 

It sometimes occurs that large numbers of kettles are 
ordered of one size. It becomes important on such occa- 
sions to have the best system of making them, in order to 
make the job pay, as well as to make them rapidly. In 
the case of such as are plain, and that do not reach a full 
semicircle in depth, they can be made very easily in casings, 
which saves both bricking of mould and ramming in the 
pit, enabling the moulder to make a pan in very short 
order. Fig. 165a shows section of casings for cope and 
core, closed and ready for casting. 

The mould shown represents a 7-foot 6-inch crystallizing 
cone 3 feet 5 inches deep. These casings can be swept in 
loam and cast about 1 inch thick, with holes about every 6 
inches all over them. These holes must be f inch and 



CASINGS FOR KETTLES AND PANS. 



187 



f inch at ends, and must be placed with the small end out- 
wards, so that the loam will wedge fast in them, and pre- 
vent their bursting out when the iron is poured in. 

An allowance of from f inch to 1 inch must be made for 
loam on the body and bottom of flange; the bearings and 
guides will do with less. Observe at A, Fig. 168, a projec- 
tion is cast on cope casing; this serves to hold up the loam 
when it is turned over, and must be made as deep as pos- 
sible. At Figs. 166 and 167 are seen the arrangement for 
spindles and sweep. The socket on the core casing is in- 




Fig. 165a. 



tended to be a fixture, but that on the cope requires to be 
taken off each cast. 

The swivel is also shown at A, Figs. 165 and 166, and at 
Fig. 166 the horse is shown on which the cope is to be 
turned, and serves as a rest while it is swept up. Let the 
face of casings be prickered as shown, so as to bind the 
loam more firmly to them. Lugs may be cast on for lift- 
ing purposes. If convenient, have both casings rest on 
the carriage whilst they are being swept, and have them 
warm when you commence. After roughing on the first 
coat let them be dried, and should it be inconvenient to 
run both moulds into the oven, the cope can be dried by 



188 



TEE IRON-FOUNDER. 



suspending a large kettle fire in the inside and covering 
over with sheet-iron; this method will soon dry it. Before 
putting on the finishing coat have the moulds well cleaned, 




and use your slip thin, and be sure to rub It well in, for 
should there be any slack places, scabs are sure to ensue. 
After the sweep and spindle are lifted from the core, a 



CASINOS FOB KETTLES AND PANS. 



189 



loam plug can be inserted into the hole at the crown, as 
seen at B, Fig. 165a. Should your spindle for the cope 
be about from 3 inches to 3^ inches, the hole left by such 
spindle would serve as the runner, taking care to cut a 
large fillet round it; this allows the iron to escape more 
freely into the mould when the kettle is thin. 

At C, Fig. 165a, is shown the method of clamping the 
moulds together to cast. Should you have to cast on the 
floor, you must set down on packings 10 inches high. Let 
the top of your runner be not less than 18 inches from the 




Fig. 166. 



crown of the pan, and in casting be sure to keep the run- 
ner full from the beginning. It is important that shavings 
be placed all around underneath the casing, and have them 
blazing when you begin to pour. As you must lift the 
casting from the casing as soon as it is safe to do so, on 
account of danger from shrinkage, it is important that 
everything should be in readiness for quick work. To that 
end arrange your runner so that it can be tapped. After 
clearing around the gate, and the clamps are all off, hitch 
on to the swivels. 

I have shown at Fig. 168 a handy method for lifting the 
casting. When the bottom of casing is hoisted as high as 
the bottom of the flange, clear away the loam and insert as 
many of the dogs (shown at B, Fig. 168) as will lift away 
the casting without warping it ; screw these firmly to the 



190 THE IRON-FOUNDER. 

casing, and the casting will be lifted as you hoist off. If 
you should not have a suitable iron truck to load on to at 
once, the casting had better be lowered on weights levelled 
for the purpose. As an extra precaution, when the pan is 
very thin and deep, the form of the inside casing may be 
made as shown by broken lines at C, Fig. 168. But when 
the casting is shallow, and a reasonable amount of speed 
be made, there is very little danger from shrinkage. Some- 
times the outer casing can be rigged so as to make a 
smaller pan than it was made for, by securing a ring around 
the inner edge at A, Fig. 168, to carry the necessary 





Fig. 167. Fig. 168. 

brickwork. When such can be done a great saving is 
effected, as all that is required is to clamp down firmly to 
the plate which carries the core, and in all other respects 
proceed as directed when core casing is used. 

Fig. 165b shows how to make a casing when lugs and 
brackets are to be cast on. In this case I have done away 
with the guide-bearing, simply sweeping the outer guide, 
as seen at A. The bottom plate for core may be cast 
separate from internal casing (in open sand) and bolted 
together as shown by broken lines at G. A little different 
arrangement of swivels is here shown, it being just as well 
to attach them to two of the brackets. Core forming the 
bracket is shown in plan at D, and in elevation at E. Bear- 
ings for the cores can be swept with core sand in each pocket 
to the correct height at F. It will be seen that space is 



MOULDING CONDENSERS, ETC., IN LOAM. 191 

allowed all round the core at G, into which (when the 
cores are set) sand can be rammed hard ; but should this 
be insufficient to hold up the core, hook bolts may be used, 
as shown at H y the holes being cast or drilled into the 
casing for the purpose. I have no hesitation in saying the 
very best work can be done in casings, and pans from % inch 
to 6 inches thick can be made without a flaw, when proper 
care is taken. 



MOULDING CONDENSERS, TANKS, HOT-WELLS, 
CISTEENS, ETC., IN LOAM. 

The castings enumerated above vary considerably as to 
size, shape, and thickness, some being square, others ob- 
long, whilst again others are made in the form of an L, 
etc. Such work is required principally by firms whose 
business it is to build marine and stationary engines, and 
as such firms invariably have foundries of their own, it 
seldom finds its way into the jobbing shops. Not unfre- 
quently the latter firms, should they receive an order for 
anything in this line, will sublet it to some engine-shop, 
believing that such work is too difficult for them to risk 
their money upon. 

There are large numbers of loam-moulders of consider- 
able experience with the spindle and sweep who would 
hesitate to start on this class of work without some previous 
instruction. It is in part for their benefit that these di- 
rections are offered, although, as will be discovered farther 
on, they are eminently adapted to the student as well. 

By taking a square tank or hot-well, 4 feet 6 inches 
square, and the same in depth, and showing how to mould 
it, we shall master the principles which, with slight modify 



192 



THE IRON-FOUNDER. 



cations, will enable us to make any of the above-mentioned 
castings. 

Fig. 169 illustrates the foundation part of this job, when 
it is intended to cast the bottom of the casting uppermost 
in the mould; the frame B, from which the cope and core 
are to be formed, rests upon the prepared seating G. This 




frame is all the pattern needed for moulding such a casting 
as we have in hand. 

Fig. 107 is a sectional elevation of the mould when finished 
and closed together. The foundation plate A must not 
be less than 2 inches thick if it is made plain on both 
sides; but if a flange is formed all along the outer edge 3 
inches deep and 1J inches thick, the plate will answer if 
made 1J inches in thickness. The latter is the best foun- 
dation-plate in all cases, especially when cross-ribs are 
added according to the strength required. 



MOULDING CONDENSERS, ETC., IN LOAM. 193 

It will be seen that this plate is made large enough to 
allow a 9-inch wall being built on all sides, and in this case 
a 12-inch hole is left in the centre at D. (It will be well 
to refer to both figures, as the lettering is the same in 
each.) 

It may here be observed that it is not necessary to use 
a spindle and centre to mould this casting; two straight- 



UEZt 




JlHl^Z^I~Z 



edges may be set to the correct height, and the bearings 
swept off direct with a third one. Should there be a 
spindle, then a parallel sweep may be used for the purpose; 
in either case the directions given will serve. 

After the foundation-plate has been set down level, 
begin by setting thereon one course of brick all over, as 
shown, on which a bed must be swept to form a bearing 
for the cope-ring E. When this has become hard enough, 
centre the frame and mark off its outline, then build an- 
other course of bricks inside the line, allowing for a thick- 
ness of loam with which to form a joint or guide, as seen 



194 THE IRON-FOUNDER. 

at C, Figs. 169 and 170. The bed swept on this course of 
bricks forms the bottom of the mould, and it is on this bed 
that the frame is seen to rest at Fig. 169. When forming 
this guide, be sure to give the requisite taper for quick 
clearance. 

The best method of separating all such joints is to brush 
oil over the surface and sprinkle thereon a little parting- 
sand. When this is done, bed down the cope-ring, as seen 
at E, Fig. 170. 

This ring must be strong, with the lugs made to corre- 
spond with those on the foundation-plate, as shown at 
Fig. 171. 

Before commencing to build the cope, brush a little oil 
over the frame, to prevent the loam from adhering to it ; 
and in laying the bricks, observe the rule to keep them half 
an inch back from the surface of the mould. The strickle 
for sweeping out the spaces will serve as a guide in build- 
ing. 

As shown at Fig. 170, the brick-work is continued as far 
as F, at which place a binding-ring is set on. This ring 
serves two purposes: it prevents the mould from splitting 
when it is being lifted, and also stiffens the wall sufficiently, 
in this case, to prevent damage from ramming. When the 
walls are deeper or longer than those under consideration, 
more of the binders are needed ; and it may be found 
necessary, in some cases, to still further strengthen them 
by bolting the upper to the lower plates, as seen at A, B, 
and C, Fig. 172. 

The remaining courses of brick over the binding-plate 
are set so as to leave half an inch for loam, with which to 
finish the walls true to the top edge of the frame. When 
this has been done, and the spaces swept on* as correctly as 
possible, the frame must be withdrawn and the cope lifted 
away. 

After replacing the frame, proceed to build the core 



MOULDING CONDENSERS, ETC., IN LOAM. 195 

after the manner shown at Fig. 170. Form a 9-inch course 
along the outside and a circle at the centre, corresponding 
to the hole in the foundation plate, which is 12 inches, and 
set in halves and pieces of brick between. Leave wide 
spaces for fine cinders to be packed in; this forms a con- 




Fig. 171. 



tinuous vent from circumference to centre at each course 
of bricks, all the way up. It is best to bed all the bricks 
on mud, and (excepting next the casting, use no more than 
is necessary to give a firm set to the bricks; this, in con- 
junction with the cinder packing, gives solidity to the core, 
and enables it to withstand the pressure exerted against 



196 THE IRON-FOUNDER. 

the sides when the mould is poured. Again, these cinders 
will be found serviceable when you dig out the core imme- 
diately after casting, which would require to be done in 
this case if the tank was under f inch thick. But the one 
under consideration being one inch in thickness, there is 
no danger on account of shrinkage, if the instructions are 
faithfully followed ; especially remembering to allow wide 
spaces between the bricks endways of the walls of the core. 

The 12-inch hole left in the middle of the core will be a 
great help in drying, if the hole in the centre of crown- 
plate be left open, which it must be, until the mould is 
placed in the pit for closing; it can then be filled with 
brickbats and cinders up to the plate at G, and then fin- 
ished by inserting a dried plug of loam. 

The crown-plate H, for a job of this kind, would require 
to be f inch thick, and 1 inch clearance on all sides. The 
prickers seen are 3 inches long. Let plenty of holes be 
cast in the plate to allow the gas from the upper surface to 
pass freely to the centre of the core. To do this effec- 
tively it is best to rest only 6 inches of the outside of the 
plate on mud or loam ; this will serve to bind the core, the 
rest will do of fine cinders. The connection is then made 
by filling more cinders amongst the prickers to the depth 
of an inch, and if the casting must be run on the crown, 
as is sometimes advisable, cover with the regular loam mix- 
ture, pressing in dry brickbats to absorb the moisture. 

In very thin bottoms it is always best to run on top, 
spreading the gates from the centre, as seen on covering- 
plate, Fig. 171. In the event of running all the iron down 
the sides, as at I, Fig. 170, the loam for the crown should be 
made very open and weak, water, in some instances, being 
preferable to clay-wash for making the loam with; for, 
should the surface be close and hard, the metal will some- 
times refuse to rest on it quietly, and then bubbles ensue. 
After striking out the top and side spaces as before di- 



MOULDING CONDENSERS, ETC., IN LOAM. 197 

rected, and after the core has hardened well, take off the 
frame and finish in the ordinary way. 

The covering-plate for this job is shown in section at J, 
Fig. 170; it is also seen in position at the view of closed 
mould, Fig. 171. Any further explanation of this plate, 
other than is to be got from a study of the views men- 
tioned, would be superfluous. Suffice it to say, be sure to 




Fig. 172. 



have it strong enough — in this instance not less than two 
inches thick. 

To prepare this plate, it may be either swept with the 
spindle or struck off to straight-edges, dry-sand facing be- 
ing rammed on it rather than loam, as the latter leaves a 
hard surface, against which the metal does not always rest 
kindly, as is the case when the former-mentioned material 
is used. 

Fig. 171 fully explains the closing and securing of this 
mould ; one of the four slings is seen in position, also one 
set of packings under the cross. When all four sides are 
packed thus, eight places are caught instead of four. By 



198 THE IRON-FOUNDEH. 

adopting this method the plate is prevented from spring- 
ing. Additional props can be introduced at any other point 
where it may be considered advisable, either singly or by 
the combination shown. 

To carry off the gas generated in this core when the 
mould is poured, let a trench be dug, 12 inches wide, from 
the centre of the bed on which the core is to rest, to the 
walls of the pit. Have this trench filled with cinders or 
ashes, and connect with a pipe, which will reach the top of 
the pit, if the whole pit is to be rammed; but if curbs are 
used in which to ram the mould, escape for the gas may be 
provided for by leaving the end of the trench uncovered. 
There is absolutely no danger of an explosion with a core 
built as herein directed, and the trench prepared as above. 

So far we have only been moulding a plain casting; we 
will now inquire into the mode of procedure where branches, 
flanges, brackets, etc., are added. 

Sometimes internal flanges are required, as at K, Fig. 170. 
These must be made loose, and set to place when the frame 
has been set back on the bed to build the core. In the event 
of such flange not exceeding three inches wide, a course of 
bricks, laid endways over it, will be all that is needed to 
carry the wall above; if wider than three inches, lay an 
iron rod alongside each brick, of a length sufficient to act 
as a counterbalance to the weight over the flange. 

In the case of a plain casting it is unnecessary to bolt 
down the core, but when flanges are introduced as de- 
scribed, an anchor of some kind is indispensable. For all 
ordinary cases the method shown at L will answer the pur- 
pose, but should the flange be required of extraordinary 
width, the increased pressure at that part would necessitate 
extra precautions to resist it, otherwise the core will rise 
and the casting be lost. In such a case the bottom bed 
must be struck wide enough for the flange, a pattern for 
which can be dispensed with by simply making a tem.por- 



MOULDING CONDENSERS, ETC., IN LOAM. 199 

ary frame, as high as the thickness of flange, with which to 
form a bearing for the covering-plate. 

This covering-plate must be prepared to set over the 
flange when finished, and bolted securely to the foundation- 
plate, through holes cast to correspond with each other in 
both plates. 

AV hen branches, brackets, etc., are to be cast on the tank 
or hot-well, the patterns of such may be secured to the 
frame by inserting a cross-bar on which to screw them 
fast, then build around in the regular way. Fig. 172 shows 
three branches, D, E, F, drawn for the purpose of explain- 
ing as many different methods of setting in the core and 
covering- cake. In all three it is seen that a guide-bearing 
for the covering-cake is prepared true to the face of flange; 



A t -£m $Z 



B 






^YM*l-.A 



AjL*" 



ujmJM-. 



Fig. 173. 

this bearing may be a part of the pattern, or it may be 
swept by a strickle, kept in position by a centre pin. 

At D the covering-cake is first set up and made fast ; 
the core is then to be pushed through until the end is 
firmly fixed into the seating prepared for it in the body 
core. 

At Ethe coveriug-cake and core are in one piece, whilst 
at F the core is supposed to have been centred by chaplets 
or studs, and the covering-cake slipped on last. All of 
these methods will be found equally applicable according 
to the circumstances which govern the job in hand. 

If a branch be required on the bottom of the mould, it 
will be found easy of accomplishment if the method shown 
at G, Fig. 172, be adopted. It will be seen that the space 



200 



THE IRON-FOUNDER 



betwixt the flange and the body of the casting is blocked 
out, and a core inserted to form such space. This core 
may be secured in many ways, but the one shown, bolting 
to the foundation-plate, is the safest. 

When branches come on the top, the method illustrated 
at Fig. 173 will be found the most simple. Have the hole in 




Fig. 174. 



the covering-plate made large enough to slip over the flange 
of the branch easily (this obviates the breaking of the cov- 
ering-plate), and when this has been swept, finished and 
dried, let it be turned over and set on the joint of the cope 
before it (the cope) is lifted off the seating; the pattern 
for the branch in the mean time having been secured to 
the frame by means of the cross-bar alluded to above, and 
propped underneath. A few cranked irons, as seen, will 
serve to carry the loam and bricks, with which the wide 
space is filled, over which the building can be continued to 



MOULDING CONDENSERS, ETC., IN LOAM. 201 

the top. If for any reason it should be required to turn 
the top plate over again, the brickwork round the branch 
can be secured to the plate, by using another plate made 
to rest thereon, with lugs A having holes cast in to corre- 
spond with staples B, cast in the covering-plate, and by 
this means binding all together with hook bolts. 

Before lifting off the covering-plate, let guide-marks be 
made, to insure the correct closing of the mould. 

To make this casting with the bottom down, as seen at 
Fig. 172, we must make an entire change in the methods 
of working, as will be observed if the figure is studied care- 
fully. 




Fig. 175. 

In this case, when the cope or outside has been built and 
lifted away, the bottom of the mould must be swept off and 
finished, and when this has sufficiently hardened, a bed of 
sand, equal to the thickness required, must be rammed 
over it; also, let the bottom-plate H be prepared and dried, 
after which it is turned over and laid central on the thick- 
ness. The frame is then replaced for building the core. 
As seen, this core is not built solid; a 9-inch wall will serve 
the purpose, if binding-plates are set in, as shown at /and 
J. These binders are needed to help resist the pressure 
which comes, against the walls when the mould is cast. 



202 THE IRON-FOUNDER. 

In larger castings it is important that greater strength be 
imparted to the walls. This may be done by bolting the 
binders together, as at A" and L; and in the case of very 
extended surfaces it will be necessary to prop each side to 
its opposite, by an arrangement of studs or joists, firmly 
wedged in. 

In some jobs it is possible to obviate very much of this 
bolting and staying, by building an inside course of bricks 
to a true circle, and filling in the corners with open brick- 
work and cinders, as shown in plan at Fig. 175. 

The lifting-staples, two of which are shown at M and N, 
are set to come under the holes cast in the inner lugs of the 
covering-plate, a plan of which plate is shown at Fig. 174. 

The core is to remain resting on the thickness, until the 
whole mould is finished and dried; the cope is then closed 
over the core, the covering-plate brought into position, and 
the core firmly bolted up to it. The whole is then to be 
lifted off the seating by hitching to the cope-ring, and when 
the sand thickness has been removed, lowered back in its 
place. 

It will be readily seen that, to make these castings in the 
manner treated of last, all the plates and rings must be 
made much stronger than is called for in the former case, 
because the covering-plate sustains the core, the cope-ring 
must lift cope, top-plate, and core, and the bottom-plate 
and cross must resist a pressure equal to four times the 
amount exerted in the former instance. 



TO MOULD A SCREW-PROPELLER IN LOAM. 203 



TO MOULD A SCREW-PROPELLER IN LOAM. 

The moulder who has never seen a propeller- wheel 
made has, no doubt, often asked himself the question, 
How is it done ? 

In explaining the method which I believe to be the 
best, I shall confine myself as strictly as possible to the 
moulder's share of the work; for it must be understood 
that the pattern-maker comes in for the lion's share of 
the credit in making wheels, and any moulder who should 
be called on to try his 'prentice-hand on this job will do 
well to remember this, and keep on comfortable terms 
with him. 

I have chosen a three-blade wheel, 10 feet diameter, to 
make, as it enables me to give a better perspective view 
of the work as it progresses. Let the foundation-plate 
A, Fig. 176, be 12 feet diameter, resting on firm ground, 
and begin by striking the bearings B and C, Fig. 176. 

The sweep for striking these bearings will bring the 
bottom of the hub high enough to allow the blades to be 
built. As the hub in this case is about 24 inches diameter, a 
wood pattern is out of the question. Two ways are open 
to the moulder to form the hub: one is, to work a sweep 
against the spindle as the blades are being built ; the other, 
to build a dummy pattern on bearing C, before commenc- 
ing the blades. Such a one is shown at D, Fig. 176. Now, 
let a line be drawn all round the outside, as seen at E, 
and divided according to number of blades, which in this 
case is three. The inclined frame F is now set to line E, 
with centre-line G at line H oxi bearing B. 

With the view of helping the beginner in this job, I 
would here call his attention to Fig. 177, which is a per- 



204 



THE IRON-FOUNDER. 



spective view of the blades as they will appear when built. 
By so doing he will better understand the various instruc- 
tions he is called upon to follow. 




As the sweep must travel on inclined frame F to give 
the required pitch of blade, the arms must work free on 
the spindle, rising and falling on the frame as needed. 
To accomplish this, a method is shown at Fig. 176, which 



TO MOULD A SCREW-PROPELLER IN LOAM. 205 

is simply a cross-beam, with socket to fit the top of the 
spindle, with pulleys at the ends, over which a rope 
travels, to the ends of which the board or sweep and 
counterweight are attached. The sweep is plain, and 
must be set in line with centre of spindle. 

The first process is to brick high enough for thickness 
of blade; to do this a guide-piece / is screwed on the 
bottom of sweep, this being a true section of the blade 
from hub to outside. When all the piers are built to this, 
remove the piece / and build the rest, care being taken to 
keep the bricks on the outside of blade, and filling the 
inside with loam bricks made for the purpose, firmly set 
in soft loam. 

You now sweep all the blades true to inclined frame, 
and as soon as hard enough the form of the blade must 
be marked off and cut out. Before moving the inclined 
frame F, mark the centre-line G on joint. 

You can now bring the sweep-board down to the line, 
and mark across from centre to outside. This is the 
centre of blade. Fig. 177 is a perspective view of your 
mould -at this stage, with the three blades built. The 
lines A and B correspond to line on inclined frame at G, 
Fig. 176. The lines 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, Fig. 177, are scribed 
down with the sweep, and are an equal division of section of 
blade, as shown at Fig. 179. From the centre-line A, Fig. 
177 is marked off on either side the width of blade; these 
being connected as seen at Fig. 177, gives the form desired. 
Fig. 179 shows thickness of blade at the several divisions, 
with lengths as well. To these sections guides must be 
made from which to work in cutting out the blade, taking 
care to have the surface true and even. You must now 
fill in with green sand, good and hard, giving another coat 
of skinning loam over all to insure an even and true face. 

At Fig. 178 is shown a way to construct the cope. A is 
a plate 7 inches wide, 1^- inches thick, with hole B cast to 



206 



THE IRON-FOUNDEB. 



secure to plate C at B, a lug being cast at the other end 
at D, with hole to secure to plate E at F. Plate 0, as will 
be seen, stands on bearings at G and H, and has bars cast 
on projecting towards the face of blade, on which to rest 
and secure other bars, which reach from plate E to centre. 
This plate stands perpendicular, and the bars must be 
cast on it to suit the forms of blade, and also to clear the 




Fig. 177. 



hub, taking care that the top lug comes correct at B. 
Plate E, as will be seen, has staples cast in through which 
the bars are put to carry the face of mould. 

When the frame is firmly bolted together — on the joint, 
so as to secure the proper fit — it must be lifted away and 
clay-washed. Clean the mould, and oil and parting-sand 
the face ; spread on the loam, and bed down the iron. 



TO MOULD A SCREW-PROPELLER IN LOAM. 207 

The bars must now be put in and wedged in the staples, 
securing the ends at the hub with clamps or wire, as is 
most convenient. 

All that remains to be done now is to fill in the spaces 
between the bars with bricks on end, packing them in 
tight with loam, and being careful not to press the ends 
of the bricks into the face of mould. 

If the iron C is carefully made to fit the hub, there is 
little to do but fill up the spaces with brick and loam ; 
but, as is often the case, the same iron must be used for 
a wheel of another pitch. Then irons must be used to 
bind the face of mould to the frame. The copes being 
all marked, as soon as they are hard enough, can be lifted 
away. Set them down at G and H, and tilt back far 
enough to finish. 

About 3 inches or 4 inches of bearing must be made all 
around top of hub, on which covering-plate will rest, and 
provision for running and feeding must be made in this 
plate, the risers being taken off at the highest point of 
each blade. It will depend on the facilities you may have 
for drying and lifting your mould how you will now proceed. 
Should your oven be too small for the large plate, you can 
place a sheet-iron curb around and build fires between the 
piers, covering the whole with plates. Another plan is to 
strike a bearing outside and around the seating at the hub, 
on which to rest separate plates to carry each blade. By 
this means both top and bottom of blades can be dried in 
the oven and set back to stakes or marks, after they are dry. 
In very large wheels this must be done. In closing your 
mould, care must be taken to keep the foundation true to 
the position it was built, as if there should be any warping 
the wheel would be untrue. 

The cross and slings can be used to bind down with, 
taking care to carry a packing from bottom lug of plate 
C at J. Plates may be bedded over the blades and wedged 



208 



THE IRON-FOUNDER. 



under the cross. Care must be taken whilst ramming over 
the blades. 

Propeller-wheels are made face down, in which case the 




Fig. 178. 



first bed is finished off to the plain sweep at once. The 
position and form of blade is obtained in the same way. 
The sections 1, 2, 3, 4. 5, 6, 7 are made about 1 inch thick 



MAKING ELBOWS, BENDS, AND BRANCH-PIPES. 209 

and placed on the bed, sand being packed between and 
shaped off by hand to the form of back of blade, and the 
cope bnilt as previously directed. This plan gives a little 
more trouble, but it insures a perfect face on the blade, 
as it takes its shape from the sweep direct, without any 
fear of alteration from rubbing or finishing. 

The instructions here given to mould a screw-propeller 
have reference to what is called a true screw. There are 
other kinds of screws made, some with what is called radi- 
ally expanding and others with axially expanding pitch. 
But as the question of pitch does not concern the moulder 
as much as it does the draughtsman and pattern-maker, I 
shall not intrude the subject here. At the same time I 
a'dvise every moulder engaged on this class of work to 
inform himself thoroughly on this subject. By so doiug, 
it will be much easier for him to follow the instructions of 
the designer or draughtsman. 



MAKING ELBOWS, BENDS, AND BRANCH-PIPES 

IN LOAM. 

Aftee a long experience on this class of work, and having 
tried many plans to make pipes in loam, I have concluded 
that the plan here presented is the best. We will sup- 
pose the pipe to be made is in the form of the one shown 
at Fig. 182, 24 inches diameter and 1^ inches thick. 

First, let your templet be as wide as the outside diameter 
of pipe wanted, and cast it stronger than you would if needed 
only for a core. Should you be going to run your pipe on 
the top, let there be holes cast in plate, through which 
your gates will pass; for, as will be seen at A, Fig. 180, 
your core-plate .is to be the covering-plate. You must also 



210 



THE IRON-FOUNDER. 



cast holes over each flange for risers, as well as for the staples 
shown at B, Fig. 180. These staples will be cast in the 
core-iron, as shown by broken lines at B, at such places as 
are needed for lifting, and, as you will perceive, will pro- 
trude through the plate when you set on your core-iron. 
The core-iron here shown is the best and easiest made of 
any I have ever used, being readily formed by the use of a 
bent pricker pattern. It must be understood that in this 
case you need but one plate and one core-iron. 

Before proceeding to ram your half-core, let your plate 



I l *gjgHBsgajBamsBBBpas535 | i ; 




be well cleaned, and then lay off the position of flanges, 
and make marks on edge of plate with a chisel to guide 
you in setting. Bed down the core-iron, and set in the 
studs to support core wherever needed, provision having 
been made, of course, by cross-bars in the core-iron. The 
position of the stud is seen at A, Fig. 181. 

Do not, as many try to do, attempt to slick up your core 
with the trowel after you have swept off the sand, but, 
what is much better, dampen the face of core and finish 
off with rubbing-sticks; by so doing you will preserve your 
core in shape. You must now place on the half-flanges, 
which are made to fit the core. After squaring and secnr- 



MAKING ELBOWS, BENDS, AND BRANCH PIPES. 211 

ing them with spikes, prepare to lay on the thickness, 
which is done in this manner: 

Have a core-box 20 inches long and 6 inches wide, with 
good draught, the depth of the thickness of pipe. Let this 
frame be secured to a board. Take the toughest sand you 
have, moisten it well, and with this make sufficient cores 
to cover the core inside the flanges. By a little care and 
practice you will soon be able to cut and place them with- 
out much trouble. You must then nail them fast to core, 
as seen at B, Fig. 181. After cleaning away from the stud, 
the flanges must be taken off and the core dried suffi- 
ciently to stand handling, but do not over-dry it, as it must 
again visit the oven. Whilst the half-core is drying set 
down the foundation-plate C, Fig. 181, and make sure that 
it is strong enough to stand the handling without spring- 
ing. 

To turn over the core, clamp core and plate together 
and roll over on soft sand. Remove plate and suspend 
your core over foundation plate at the place most suitable 
for lifting and binding, and as much above it as will admit 
of a brick between it and the flanges, as seen at C, Fig. 180. 

Now pack up with dry brick to all the bearings, taking 
care to have your core level ; place your chaplet from 
bottom-plate to stud, as shown at D, Fig. 181, and when all 
is firm and level you can lower off. The chaplet here men- 
tioned is simply a straight piece of f -inch iron, nicked at 
end which enters casting, which is built in and remains. 
By this means absolute correctness is assured in thickness 
when you close the mould. 

You have now got your half-core in position for building 
around, but it is best to put on the upper half. Find 
place for stud and set it into sweep (see E, Fig. 181). You 
will observe that I have shown, first, the stud, which is 
high enough to admit of a piece of wood 1 inch thick, 4 
inches square, on which is placed a thin piece of wrought- 



212 



THE IRON-FOUNDER. 



iron, the idea being to save the trouble of releasing the 
stud when cast, as by the time the wrought-iron is hot 
enough to burn the wood the metal will be set, and all 
danger over of the core lifting. The wood burns away, and 
allows the shrinkage to take place without damage to cast- 
ing. A, Fig. 182, also shows position of stud. Set flanges 
in position, top halves as well as bottom. Commence by 
building behind flanges, as shown at D, Fig. 180. Build up 
to flanges J inch clear of circle, rub on loam and sweep 




Fig. 181. 

off with top half of flange. You may, if you choose, extem- 
porize a bearing for the flange to run on, but very little 
practice will enable you to do without. You will observe 
a hole is left in the middle of brickwork for the gas to 
escape at. 

Having now got the ends of core in good shape and your 
studs fixed, lay (in mud) a course of half-bricks wide apart, 
as shown at B, Fig. 182, about 2 inches from edge of core, 
as seen at F, Fig. 181. Dig down to cinders in two or three 
places to make connection; fill in cinders, as seen for top 



Making elbows, bends, and brangb-Pipes. 213 

half, packing them well down, and a course of old sand 
over them to within 2 inches of face, to save core-sand; 
ram on sufficient core-sand and sweep off. This must be 
carefully done, as you have only the thickness on which to 
rest your sweep, but by a little care you can secure a good 
shape. After rubbing to shape, secure the flanges in position 
and place on the thickness. There is no need to nail the 
upper half. 

You have now got the core and pattern in perfect shape 
— in every respect as good as the best wood pattern. Now 
oil all over, and throw on parting-sand and build up to 
joint, as shown in Fig. 181, leaving about J inch for loam. 

At 0, Fig. 182, is shown plan of cope-ring, which must be 
made strong. The ring is made by laying templet on level 
bed and marking 1£ inches clear of outside, also allowing 
good clearance at ends. In bedding cope-ring have it sus- 
pended over your mould all clean, and then lay on your 
loam a little higher than the half. Throw on plenty of 
parting-sand and bed down the ring; mark, and lift off 
again. You now go round with your trowel making the 
joint to correspond with the bottom of ring; this gives you 
a perfect joint. After throwing on a little more parting- 
sand, clay-wash inside of ring and put back. Fill in 
between ring and pattern, and build as shown at G, 
Fig. 181. 

I have been careful in making these drawings to show 
the whole plan of building. At H\s seen chaplet resting 
on stud, which reaches just high enough to admit of a flat 
wrought-iron plate being placed upon it. The mud of 
course covers this as it does the brickwork when the top 
plate is bedded on. The broken lines at Fig. 180 show 
methods of running, the top gates at flanges being the 
best usually. As you will see, they are set to clear the body 
core. You now see the use you are to make of the core- 
plate, and why. you make provision for running, etc., when 



914 



THE moN-FOUNDER. 



it is made. The reason for the loose plate over the chaplet 
is to save trouble when bedding on the top plate. The 
mud between the plates becoming hard enough to resist 
the pressure, saves trouble. The top chaplet also remains 
where it is built, so that when the mould is closed there is 
no measuring or wedging to do. Mark your mould at the 




Fig. 182. 



joint at such places as are not likely to be disturbed, lift 
off your cope, and set up on stands high enough to work 
under. Lift out your core, first freeing it at prints, as 
well as digging out a little of the thickness all around; 
this prevents the joint from being lifted up. After pulling 
off the thickness, and trimming, a little blacking finishes 
ready for the oven. In closing your mould, if you are 
careful in setting your bottom half in pit, you will find 
that core and cope will come together very readily. 



MAKING ELBOWS, BENDS, AND BRANCH-PIPES. 215 

A plan of binding is shown at Fig. 181. By hitching on 
to centre of beam with slings attached to bottom lugs, you 
can pack between it and covering-plate as seen at /, Fig. 
181. Fig. 180 is an end view of mould when closed. Fig. 181 
shows section of mould cut through at chaplets, and shows 
how to make both halves of core. The thickness is shown 
nailed on bottom half, the method of building, binding, 
etc. Fig. 182 is plan showing bottom half resting on bear- 
ings, flanges set and top bearings struck off, with course of 
half -brick laid ready for cinders; staple is also shown as 
well as cope-ring. 

We will now consider some other methods which will 
best meet the case, when the order is for a sufficient 
number to warrant the necessary outlay for casings, etc., 
by which means the founder can produce castings with 
greater facility and at less expense. 

In order to give a clear exposition of the method of 
moulding pipes in casings, let us proceed to make a 
24-inch socket-pipe, 10 feet long, and bent to 14 feet 
radius. The succeeding instructions will serve for flange- 
pipes as well. 

Fig. 183 is a sectional view of top and bottom halves 
of the casings required for moulding such a pipe. The 
thickness is 1 inch all through, strengthened by ribs, 
2 feet apart, extending all round, from flange A to flange 
B, as indicated by the outer line. Lugs for lifting pur- 
poses are shown at 0, D, E, and F; these may be either 
separate or attached to the ribs, according to circum- 
stances. In this instance If inches is allowed for loam, 
which is held to the casing by the prickers shown. Let 
these prickers be 1£ inches at the base, and J inch at the 
top, for if they are made any lighter than this their life is 
short. They may be set in about 6 inches apart, and vent- 
holes cast in the same ratio. 



216 



THE IRON-FOUNDER. 



It will be seen at G that provision is made for holding 
a stud with which to support the core; this socket is 
made to receive a stud 1 inch in diameter, and must be 
set in exact position to catch the packing H, which, as 
shown, extends from the surface of the core to arbor I. 
Provision for holding down the core is shown at </, con- 




Fig. 183. 



sisting of two clamps of wrought-iron, 1£ inches square, 
cast in the casing — one on each side of the hole through 
which the stud iTis dropped. A stout bar, resting on the 
stud, and firmly wedged under these clamps, secures the 
thing at once. 

This stud K is seen to rest on a wrought-iron plate 4 
inches square and f inch thick, and between this and the 
packing L is inserted a piece of wood 1 inch thick, and of 
the same dimensions as the plate; this wood burns away 
in due time, and releases the core-iron. Of course the 
casing is made to the form of the pipe, as seen at section 



MAKING ELBOWS, BENDS \ AND BRANCH-PIPES. 21? 

of socket end, Fig. 184; and it is best to allow 6 inches extra 
length, as shown at A. The core, extending the same 
distance past the bearing, forms a space into which sand 
may be rammed all round after the mould is closed; and 
by this means make it impossible for the iron to escape 
at any part of the bearings. 

The mode of sweeping this mould is shown in detail at 
Figs. 184, 185, and 186. Fig. 186 represents a frame of 
cast-iron made to the outer dimensions of the pipe on its 
inside edge (only at the print ends, which must be the 




Fig. 184. 



Fig. 185. 



width of the core at that place), and whose outside edge 
corresponds to the casing at A, B, Fig. 183. 

This frame and a body sweep, in conjunction with the 
spindle attachment shown, constitutes the whole arrange- 
ment for forming the outside of the mould. 

It will greatly facilitate the operations if the casings are 
set one on each side of a vertical spindle, with which to 
sweep off the joints; and should the spindles already 
erected not be available, one can very readily be ex- 
temporized for the purpose. The joints may be rammed 
with dry-sand facing and swept with a straight board, 
after which the iron frame is placed thereon, and the 
mould formed. 

It will be seen that the spindle B, Fig. 184, works in a 



218 



THE IROtfEOTTNDEB. 



loose bush, which is held in its place by a set-screw C, and 
that it is prevented from moving endways by the collar D. 
The reason for having this loose bush is obvious; the 
centre of the spindle must be on a line with the joint of 
the mould, as seen in Fig. 185, and when the frame is re- 
versed and placed on the other half, the bush must be 
moved to bring the centre on a line with the joint, as in 




Fig. 186. 



the former instance. If this were not done, two frames 
would be required, and four holes bored instead of two. 

The horizontal spindle serves to form the ends, and also 
the bearings for the core, and, as will be plainly seen, 
flanges may be swept with the same facility as plain ends. 
The body of the pipe is formed by a sweej3, made to rest 
on the frame as it is drawn from end to end. By using 
one frame for both halves an absolute fit is obtained by 
simply smoothing off the loam even with the outer edge 
of the frame in both cases, and carefully matching them 
when closing the mould. 



MAKING ELBOWS, BENDS, AND BRANCH-PIPES. 21 9 

The mode of pouring in this case will be governed by 
the style of core used. Should the core be made of a 
material which will allow the iron to be dropped on the 
top, a sufficient number of holes must be cast in the 
casing for the purpose of forming the gates. Or, if it is 
thought best to make the bottom half in dry sand, and 
the top green, then provision can be made in the bottom 
casing for the insertion of the necessary gates, and se- 




Fig. 187. 

curing the runner box in which the pouring basin is to be 
made. 

Again, should an entire green-sand core be used, it will 
be best to provide for running in at the end by casting 
holes at one end of the top casing for upright runners to 
connect with gates cut round the bottom bearing, these 
again connecting with the casting in the direction of its 
length. Such a runner is easily made by attaching a 
finger-piece to the sweep, at the point where it is intended 
to run the pipe, connecting it with the mould afterwards. 
The latter mode will be found applicable in nearly all 



£20 TEE IRON-FOURDEil. 

cases, and is by far the best method, owing to the fact 
that neither cope nor core offers any opposition to the free 
ingress of the iron. 

The labor of making cores for this job will be ap- 
preciably lessened by providing a half core-box of cast- 
iron in which to make them. When such a box is fur- 
nished, all that is needed in the way of core-iron is a stout 
bar, made to the curve of and central with the pipe, on 
which loose frames are wedged fast along its length, at a 
proper distance from each other, as shown in section at 
Fig. 183. With such a rig as this it is only required to ram 
about 6 inches of sand solid all round, filling the inside 
with coarse cinders as the rammiug progresses. The top 
half can be swept off with a strickle, made to work on the 
edges of the half-box, and any little deviation from a 
correct half in the iron box can be rectified by adding to 
or reducing the strickle, as occasion requires. 

The utility of the method herein suggested for sweeping 
pipes is not by any means confined to moulding in casings. 
By referring to Fig. 187 it will be seen how easily it may be 
applied to a regularly built mould, so prepared that an 
almost unlimited number of pipes may be cast therein 
with absolute safety, the frame and horizontal spindle 
being used in exactly the same manner as directed for the 
casing. The inner circle represents the mould, the bottom 
half of which is built on foundation-plate A, up to the 
points B, B, where another plate, which is a fac-simile of 
the flange on the casing, is placed and secured by bolts CC. 

For the top half, make the covering-plate as shown with 
lugs or handles E, E, set convenient for lifting and roll- 
ing over. Let holes be cast about every 12 inches along 
each side of the plate, for the purpose of securing cross- 
bars F, which, as shown, have flanges, with holes cast to 
correspond with those cast in the top plate. Bars and 
plate are then made one by bolts G, G 3 and similar plates 



MAKING ELBOWS, BENDS, AND BRANCH-PIPES. 221 

to those at B, B are secured to these bars by bolts at H, H. 
The bars, having a flange along their outer edges, hold 




the bricks firmly in their place, while the lugs E } E, ex- 
tending beyond the outermost part of the mould, and set 
central with it, allow the cope to be rolled easily either 



222 THE IRON-FOUNDER. 

one way or the other, resting on them (the 'lugs) through- 
out the whole operation of reversing. 

Before entering on another phase of this subject, let us 
revert to the matter of securing cores, and that by means 
other than by chaplets and studs. It is not always essen- 
tial that studs be resorted to as a means of securing cores, 
as we shall demonstrate further on. 

Fig. 138 is a mould view of a 48-inch elbow-pipe, whose 
flanges are equal distance from the centre, and at right 
angles to each other. The mould is supposed to have 
been swept, by either the frame suggested or by any of 
the customary methods in vogue, and the thickness laid, 
ready for building the core. Ordinarily, the plate A, after 
being swept on the underside and dried, would be turned 
over and laid on the thickness, and a middle stud cast on 
the plate would rest on another one, set to match it in the 
bottom of the mould. Now this, as well as all the labor 
in connection with the holding down of such a core as the 
one under consideration, can be successfully done away 
with, by using the bar with counterbalancing ends, shown 
at B, Fig. 188. In the case under consideration this bar 
would rest on packings at the ends and middle of the plate, 
one of which is shown at C. 

The plate A can then be secured to the bar B by clamps, 
after the manner shown at E. The whole job is then con- 
trolled by the counterbalance; inasmuch as it is lifted by 
staples F, F, prevented from drooping by bearing D, and 
held down by securing at G. When these bars cannot be 
taken out whole, one end may be made separate and bolted 
on, as shown by broken lines at H. 

It will be apparent how readily this principle can be 
applied to a dry or green-sand core by slipping on the 
thin plates J, as before directed. 

When the radius of the bend is not too small, and the 



MAKING ELBOWS, BENDS, AND BRANCH PIPES. 223 




Fig. 189. 



224 



THE IRON-FOUNDER. 



pipe within limits as to length, it becomes practicable to 
mould and cast such on end, as the following will show. 

Let it be required to make a 48-inch pipe, 8 feet long, 
and radius of bend 34 feet. First lay down a suitable 
foundation-plate, as shown at A (Fig. 189), and with the 
spindle sweep thereon an ordinary seating a little larger 
than the outside edge of the socket or flange; in this case 




Fig. 190. 



it is socket; but, as before stated, these instructions will 
serve in either case. When this has sufficiently hardened, 
set the guide or angle pieces B, B, with which to finish off 
the bed to the required angle, as seen at A, A (Fig. 190). 
A careful examination of the view given at Fig. 189 will 
reveal the whole plan of operation; CC are posts made 
fast to the wall against which the guides DD are screwed 
fast, at the same time resting on the angle-pieces BB< 



MAKING ELBOWS, BENDS, AND BRANCH-PIPES. 225 

The top and bottom edges of these guide frames corre- 
spond to the angle of the ends, and the front edges to the 
curve of the pipe; these are placed exactly midway of the 
mould and form the bearings on which the strickles work 

Fig. 191, 




Fig. 192. 

to make the mould by. The first strickle used is shown 
resting against these bearings at EE. 

The socket or flange (which may be segments of cast- 
iron or wood) beiug placed in position, the first half of the 
cope must be built. The half-rings for carrying the cope 



226 THE IRON-FOUNDER. 

are shown in section at BB (Fig. 1 90). The top halves are 
shown in plan at Fig. 191, and also in section at CC, Fig. 190. 
The arrangement for bolting and lifting these half copes 
will be manifest without further explanation other than a 
careful study of the drawings will convey. A few half- 
rings for binders will be necessary in both copes and core, 
as seen at D, E, and F, especially so when the curve is 
quicker. 

The plan view at Fig. 192 shows first half of cope built, 
thickness set against it and the core built up to this thick- 
ness at the inside half, and swept by the strickle A on the 
outside. If the strickles should be found too heavy for 
easy working, fix a rope pulley overhead and hitch on at 
the place marked by the crosses, and be sure to have the 
block pull hard against the guide; by this means the 
working will be better controlled. 

The job is now completed by adding the socket and 
thickness (around the core this time, of course), and build- 
ing the other half of the cope. 

It is best to place the halves together for finishing, and 
any bead or facing which may be called for on the top end 
may then be formed by a finger-piece worked round to a 
circular guide resting on the joint. 

Should the pipe require flanges at both ends, segments 
can be used top as well as bottom. It hardly need be said 
how simple a matter it will be to build in a branch at any 
part of this mould. 

When practicable, this method will be found far in ad- 
vance of any other for this class of work, as it saves both 
time and expense, and requires less skill to work it. 



MAKING LARGE ELBOW-PIPES ON END IN LOAM. 227 



MAKING LARGE ELBOW-PIPES ON END IN 

LOAM. 

Very large elbows are usually made in as short lengths 
as possible, and very rarely exceed a quarter of a circle, in 
which case they are readily made on the flat. But when, as 
is sometimes the case, a pipe is required, say 60 inches diam- 
eter and 8 feet long on one end, a much better way can be 
found to make it. And as the instructions for this job 
will serve for almost any other having a large elbow cast 
on, I have taken pains to show every detail of the operation. 
A careful study of the engravings is almost- all that any 
intelligent moulder will require to enable him to grasp the 
idea. But as my object is to instruct such as have had 
little or no experience in this class of work, I shall take 
the job in detail and explain from beginning to end how to 
make an elbow-pipe 5 feet diameter 3 feet 6 inches and 8 
feet 6 inches from centre of elbow. 

First. Let cope and core of long end be built and swept 
in the ordinary way, with sweep and spindle up to the turn 
shown at A, Fig. 193. The outer lines of Fig. 194 represent 
plan of foundation-plate and cope-ring. At B, Fig. 193, is 
seen the binding-ring for cope, which is cast to outside 
dimensions of brickwork, and extending at the front the 
same distance as bottom cope-ring, and wide enough to 
permit the guide-pieces A, Fig. 194, to rest on it. A smooth 
bed of loam is struck at joint A, Fig. 193, on cope and core. 

Now let these plain parts be closed together in the pit, 
and as you must work around your mould, cover the 
mouth of pit with planks. Fill up the thickness with 
waste or hemp, and lay on the guide-piece A. A side and 
end view of this guide is shown at Figs. 195 and 196. The 
half -flange must be attached to this guide at its proper 



228 



THE IRON-FOUNDER. 



distance from centre, and the whole frame set to centre- 
lines drawn on the level bed, as shown. The sweeps for 
forming the elbow will run on these guides, with stops, as 
shown at A, Fig. 196, and after the outside is built, as at 
Fig. 196, the thickness must be placed on and the core built. 
Figs. 193 and 196 are side and end elevation of core, and 
show the way to construct it. At A, Fig. 193, is seen the 
bottom plate, having staples cast on the upper side, to bind 







Mae 



F^=? 



m 



i 



G 



1 



G 



G 




Fig. 193. 

the plate B. These staples are shown in plan, Fig. 194, 
marked 1. Four internal lugs are cast on this plate, with 
staples cast downward; these, as will be seen, are used to 
bind the core to foundation-plate, in which corresponding 
lugs must be cast. This method of securing the elbow to the 
body core does away with the use of chaplets, and makes 
the job absolutely safe as regards metal oozing through the 
joint. 

Let this plate be solidly bedded on the joint, as shown, 
with no loam under it; set in the hook bolts, and build up 
to B with an ordinary double course of brick, using the 



MAKING LARGE ELBOW-PIPES ON END IN LOAM. 229 

reverse sweep on guide, as shown. By referring to Fig. 196, 
it will be seen why this brickwork is carried so high. It 
allows of a sufficient width of plate to carry the sides of 
core, which, as is seen, is built on plate B as far as plate O. 
It will be seen that plate B has not only holes cast in to 




Fig. 194. 

receive bolts from plate A, but other staples are shown, 
which serve to secure the top plate C, and so bind the 
whole core together. These staples are seen in plan Fig. 
194, marked 2. The long staple D and lugs E are shown 
in plan at Fig. 194, marked 3 and 4. 

Let this plate be turned over after it is made, and after 
filling in the cinders about half-way of the prickers, fill up 
the rest with loam and pieces of brick. If you are careful 
in making the plate to push the prickers in the right 



230 THE IRON-FOUNDER. 

length to suit the curve, a very thin coat of loam will serve 
to bed down in. When this is dry enough to use, bed it 
into place and secure the bolts from plate A, and build, as 
shown, up to where plate C comes on. Holes are cast in 
plate C to correspond with staples in plate B. This plate, 
with holes marked 2, is shown in plan at Fig. 194. 

After securing plate C, fill in cinders among the prickers 
up to within 4 inches of face, and ram over this plate with 
good open core sand. The brickwork can be strickled off 
with loam in the usual manner. 

The reason I prefer core sand for the top is because the 
iron rests more quietly on sand than it does on loam. 
Before striking off the sand be sure and vent well down 
into the cinders. It is important that you should have as 
many holes as possible cast in these plates, to carry off the 
gas, and also have the brickwork as open as possible, and 
well cindered in every course. After finishing the core let 
the upper half of flange be set on true, and put on the 
thickness. Oil all over, and throw on some parting sand; 
you may then proceed to build the outside. 

At Figs. 195 and 196 is seen the way to build it. A, Fig. 
195, being the first plate needed, staples are cast in this plate 
for the purpose of binding it to plate B. A plan of plate A, 
with staples marked 5, is seen at Fig. 194, The overhang- 
ing brickwork can be supported with a building-ring or 
plate, as shown at C, Fig. 195. Plan of plate B, with holes 
for bolts from A, and staples marked 7, carrying bolts to 
plate E, with lugs for lifting, marked 6, are seen at Fig. 
194. A method of building this part is shown at Figs. 195 
and 196, with top covering-plate E bolted down. 

After all is built, and the requisite marks made for guides, 
the top can be lifted away. Dig out about 2 inches down 
of the thickness, to save pulling up the joint, and then lift 
out the elbow core. The thickness being cleaned out of 
the bottom half, and the waste or hemp removed from 



MAKING LARGE ELBOW-PIPES ON END IN LOAM. 231 

around the mould, you can — after making sure of guides 
at the bottom seating — again separate your moulds and 
finish for drying. Should it be found inconvenient to 
handle the whole cope when the under half of the elbow is 
built on it, or should the mould be too long for the oven, 
the plain part can be divided by an extra cope-ring at any 
point you may choose. 




Fig. i95. 



The rest of the job is plain, each piece finding its own 
place in the order they were separated. After the elbow 
core is in place, the bolts G, Fig. 193, must be secured, as 
already explained, to the foundation. A little of the dry 
loam may be scraped out at the joint H, Fig. 193, and wet 
loam pushed into the space, as shown. 

Should there be any doubt as to the strength of building- 
ring B, Fig. 193, piers can be built up from cope-ring to 
support the front, as shown by broken lines. 



232 



THE IRON-FOUNDER. 



To gate such a casting as this, let the bottom flange be 
covered well by runners leading thereto, before you rise up 
to the main runners, which are shown by broken lines at 
F, Fig. 193. As many of these runners can be put in as 
will run the casting at a fair rate of speed until the iron 
reaches about the height of the plain part, or even a little 
below, when runners D at top flange, shown at broken line, 
Fig. 196, must be used. 

If two ladles are used to cast with, all the better : a sep- 




1^. 



Fig. 196. 

arate runner can be made for them ; but should only one 
ladle be thought necessary, let plugs covered with loam be 
inserted in these gates, and the runner made around them, 
withdrawing them in time to let in the hot iron to the top 
of the mould before the scum, which rising as the body fills 
up, reaches the elbow part. 

Broken lines at D, Fig. 195, show the risers. 

The vent can be taken from this core by dropping dry 
shavings to the bottom of core and running a little molten 
iron down to ignite them just before casting. 



PART IV. 
DRY-SAND MOULDING. 



DRY-SAND MOULDING, WITH EXAMPLES FOR 
MAKING DIFFERENT CLASSES OF WORK. 

The term "dry sand" is somewhat indefinite, and fails 
to convey the full meaning of that which it is intended to 
explain. 

The difference between dry sand and green sand is sim- 
ply this, that moulds prepared by the latter method are cast 
at once, whilst in a green or moist condition, and the 
former are dried in ovens, built for the purpose, before the 
casting takes place. 

The reasons for the drying process are many, as will be 
shown farther on ; and whilst it must be confessed that 
very many castings are made in dry sand at an augmented 
cost, which might as readily be made in green sand, still 
I am persuaded that the system would be more generally 
adopted for a larger range if it was better understood. 

The extra cost of production is sometimes urged against 
the adoption of this method, but this cannot always be 
substantiated, as very many jobs, apparently insignificant, 
might be made with much greater facility and despatch in 
dry sand than could ever be attained in green sand, with 
the percentage of loss very much in favor of the former. 

233 



234 THE IRON-FOVNDER 

It must also be understood that the possibilities by the 
dry-sand method are not confined to the production of 
steam-cylinders and kindred jobs, but can be made of uni- 
versal application. 

Difficulties almost insurmountable, if attempted in green 
sand, disappear at once when it is decided to make the 
job in dry sand; and large numbers of castings which, if 
made by the former method, would require the very best 
talent to produce, may be accomplished by the latter with 
comparative ease by inferior men. 

A dry-sand mould correctly prepared is a much firmer 
mould than could possibly be made in green sand, for which 
reason a greater resistance to pressure is offered by it, thus 
enabling us to accomplish very deep work without detri- 
ment to the outline of the mould. 

It is because of the greater opportunities for first-class 
finish which dry-sand moulding offers that we recommend 
its adoption on all work of elegant design, when a correct 
reproduction of the pattern is demanded, whether the job 
is to be tool-finished or not. 

Again, a dry sand mould, having lost its moisture, is more 
porous, and consequently requires less labor in preparing a 
way out for the gases generated on the surface of the mould 
as the molten iron fills the space ; in fact, when the mould 
is thoroughly dried, which ought always to be the case 
when best results are called for, the need for venting is re- 
duced to a minimum, except in such parts of the mould as 
are very much confined. 

This being admitted, there is less danger of the mould 
scabbing, and thus endangering the success of the work 
from the presence of dirt resulting therefrom. 

It must also be remembered that scabbing is not the 
only cause of dirt in green-sand moulds; for, no matter how 
carefully such a mould is prepared, the surface suffers in 
proportion to the wash of the molten iron upon it, and 



Btir-SAtfl) MOULDING. 235 

gives off an amount of dirt, which goes to increase that of 
which we have already spoken. 

Now this, as previously intimated, cannot occur in the 
well-prepared dry-sand mould ; this fact alone will be suffi- 
cient to recommend the latter method for the production 
of all castings which must be clean in their upper .as well 
as more remote parts. 

Another advantage which this method offers is that 
moulds may be poured with much hotter iron without det- 
riment to the surface of the casting, all the superior finish 
being preserved intact — a highly desirable thing in very 
many castings, it must be allowed. 

This is certainly a very great advantage, for it is well 
known by all practical moulders that a much better surface 
can be obtained on the green-sand casting if the iron is 
allowed to cool down to the point where it will be just able 
to run smoothly, and fill every part without showing faint 
outlines at the sharp angles; but is it not also admitted 
that, by cooling the iron to save the mould, such iron has in 
some measure lost its fluidity, thereby lessening its ability 
to flow together in one compact mass? Especially is this 
the case where there are portions of the mould of less mag- 
nitude than other portions, the lighter parts, in this case, 
having to wait, as it were, until the heavier parts fill, be- 
come partially or wholly congealed, and, on account of the 
dulness of the iron, the connection is lost at that part, 
and very often the casting as well, on account of it. 

There being no necessity to dull the iron for a dry-sand 
mould, the above serious error is averted. 

This, however, is not the only way by which hot iron 
may be permitted to assert its superiority over dull by 
adopting the dry-sand method; it must be apparent to all 
that dull iron has also lost its ability to throw off its im- 
purities. Entering the mould in a sluggish stream, or 
streams, it forms a convex upper surface as it rises in the 



236 THE IRON FOUNDER. 

mould, and such impurities as appear on its surface are laid 
against the sides, lap on lap, as it were, whilst, on the 
other hand, when good hot iron is used, its fluidity being 
greater, the dirt rises instantly to the top, and is carried 
to the point prepared to receive it, leaving the casting 
comparatively free from impurities, as well as preserving a 
degree of homogeneity in the mass, only to be attained by 
such practice, and no other. 

Right here let me say that the soundest castings are 
those which are poured with the hottest iron; therefore, to 
obtain them it is imperative that such moulds be prepared 
as will admit of iron being used in that condition. This, 
I think, is a very strong argument in favor of dry-sand 
moulds for all work requiring the maximum degree of 
strength and purity. 

Still another important advantage which a dry-sand 
mould possesses, namely, that castings may be gated, or the 
iron may be introduced into the mould at such places as 
will be most likely to secure a good clean finish, if it 
should be desired. This cannot always be done in green 
sand, except in a very limited number of cases, simply be- 
cause the surfaces of the green-sand mould are not as firm 
as they are in dry sand; consequently the first thing to de- 
termine, if the job is to be made in green sand, is not, 
"How can we best secure a clean bore or planed surface ?" 
so much as, "How can we best avoid scabbing of the 
mould ?" and nine times out of ten the gates are placed 
with the view of meeting the latter emergency at the ex- 
pense of the former. 

Very true, a great number of green-sand moulds may be 
tilted to the angle suitable for clean pouring, and even set 
on end for the same purpose ; but, as I said at the outset, 
greater skill and considerably more time is needed to ac- 
complish this, and the risk of losing the casting is always 
greater. 



DRY- SAND MOULDING. 237 

It might be asked, if the dry-sand method is so much 
superior for intricate and heavy work, why is it not more 
generally adopted? The correct answer to such query 
would be, because it is not generally understood, and is 
underrated because of failure in some instances when it 
has been attempted by men who were unaccustomed to 
such work. 

For the successful accomplishment of this class of work, 
men must be trained to its performance, the proper ma- 
terial, the best tools, such as flasks, ovens, pits, etc., must 
be provided. When this is done, it is safe to say that, 
with right management, the output may be made in every 
sense superior to anything which could be effected in green 
sand. 

MOULDING SANDS AND CLAYS. 

One of the chief elements for the production of good dry- 
sand work is the sand used for facing the pattern with, 
and as some jobs — such as are rammed on end with a very 
limited amount of sand between the pattern and the flask 
— do not allow of such facing, but must be filled up alto- 
gether with the same sand, the whole heap in this case 
must partake of the nature of facing sand. 

This sand should possess a uniformity of grain, with 
sufficient cohesiveness to allow of its being packed or 
"rammed" into a compact mass; this does not mean that 
it shall be of a pasty nature; for, usually, the element 
which creates such a condition is something which de- 
tracts from its value as a good moulding sand. 

It is important that all sands for moulding purposes 
should be as free as possible from such substances as will 
generate gas when subjected to the great heat which is 
brought to bear on them, and for the same reason they 
must be chosen with regard to their fusibility. 



238 THE IRON-FOUNDER. 

Very frequently it is possible to use some of the finer 
grades of sand, of a not very refractory nature, on thin 
castings, and by so doing obtain smoother work; but if 
such sand were to be used on heavier work, failure would 
be the result; success in the former instance being attrib- 
utable to the simple fact that the molten iron congeals 
rapidly, and loses its power of penetration, whilst in the 
latter it remains longer in a fluid state, thus giving time 
for the fusible substances in the sand to melt. 

From the above, it will be inferred that, in some in- 
stances at least, inferior grades of sand may be used with 
impunity at considerable saving of cost in manufacture, 
whilst again, in other instances, the selection of the most 
refractory kinds of sands is indispensable. 

It is not desirable that good moulding sand should con- 
tain very much of any other element than "silica," which 
is simply "flint-stone," or "quartz," this substance being 
the most refractory of any of the rocks or earths; but as 
found in the various sand-beds from which it is dug, it is 
always mixed with more or less of other matter, which im- 
pairs its value for foundry purposes; but it is claimed that 
a little "magnesia," or oxide of magnesium, together with 
a small percentage of "alumina," or oxide of aluminum, 
improves its value. 

The clays used for bringing the silica up to the requisite 
degree of consistency must be carefully selected, as all 
such as contain more than six per cent of "carbonate of 
lime" — commonly called " limestone" — should be rejected. 

It will be seen from the foregoing that, in making selec- 
tions of sands and clays for moulding purposes, it is abso- 
lutely necessary that some one should possess a sufficient 
knowledge of chemistry and geology to enable him to not 
only choose the right kind, but to analyze the same after 
its identity has been thoroughly established; otherwise we 
must go on in the old way, making repeated trials of differ- 



DRY-SAND MOULDING. 239 

ent sands, etc., mixed in varying proportions, and by so 
doing obtain such mixtures as, at best, are only an approxi- 
mation to correctness. 

Does not this suggest to us, as moulders, the great neces- 
sity of a higher education, to enable us to know all of our 
trade ? 

FLASKS. 

Flasks for dry-sand work should always be made stronger 
than is usually the case for green-sand, because of the 
harder usage they receive. All joint edges should meet 
with chipping strips as thick as will separate the flanges 
wide enough to allow of a loam packing being pressed in 
before bolting together. 

The method of having this chipping strip extend to the 
outer edge of the flange, alternately, between the bolt- 
holes, with the view of supporting the flange against the 
pressure exerted by the bolt, is not a good one, as it inter- 
feres with the safe stopping-in of the joint; very often 
castings are lost on account of the metal finding its way to 
this spot. It is especially dangerous when the mould is to 
be placed on end in a confined pit. 

The better plan is to tie the flange to the body of the 
flask by at least as many brackets as there are bolt-holes, 
taking care to have each bracket as close to the bolt-hole 
as possible, after the manner shown in the flask drawn at 
Fig. 197. 

All cheek and end parts, where practicable, should have 
holes cast in them, for the purpose of bolting in such bars 
as may be required to check off separate parts of the mould ; 
and as, very naturally, these holes weaken the sides very 
much, it is well to still further strengthen them by cross- 
flanges extending from edge to edge in as many places as 
it is convenient to do. 



240 



THE IRON-FO UNDER. 



The upper ends of all cheeks and sides should be made 
with an extra strong flange, and provision made for turning 
up on end and lifting the whole flask, by casting holes at 
suitable places for the introduction of ring-bolts, as shown 



JE.E 




in illustration to article on " Cylindrical Work in Top and 
Bottom Flasks." 



FACING, RAMMING, VENTING, AND FINISHING. 

I know that it is a common practice in some shops to 
use the strong green-sand facing for dry-sand work, and 
with some jobs it is quite practicable to do so, but when- 



DRY SAND MOULDING. 241 

ever it is tried on such work as " pumps" and " cylinders/' 
I have no hesitation in saying that it is a comparative fail- 
ure, for the simple reason that such sands are too fine in 
the grain, give off too much gas, and are lacking in the one 
great essential — " stability." 

Because of its fineness, it is wanting in porosity, and 
must therefore be treated in much the same manner as in 
green sand, every part receiving its due share of surface 
venting, etc. All this is unnecessary when a proper mix- 
ture is made; therefore, to use such facing sand is an ab- 
solute waste of time, to say nothing of the constant danger 
from scabbing after all this has been done to prevent it. 

Another objection to this sand is the rottenness of the 
surface after it has been dried; and as dry-sand moulds, such 
as those above mentioned, must of a necessity receive 
harder usage than is ordinarily the case during the opera- 
tion of closing, broken spots and patches are the rule, and 
not by any means the exception. 

The No. 5 mixture given in article on "Core-Making," 
is all that can be desired for such work, there being eight 
parts of coarse " silica" sand to two parts of a finer grade 
of good moulding sand. The finer sand just serves to form 
a bed, as it were, for the large grains of refractory silica to 
rest in ; but it is these coarse grains which find their way 
to the pattern during the operation of ramming, thus 
offering a firm and unyielding surface, which no amount 
of ordinary treatment in finishing and closing can destroy. 

The clay in this mixture serves to cement the mass more 
firmly together without deteriorating, to any appreciable 
extent, its porosity, whilst the flour serves a double pur- 
pose. First, it gives a greater degree of consistency to the 
whole, in the green as well as in the dry state, especially so 
in the latter, if the mould is dry and not burned; and sec- 
ond, whilst there is not enough flour in the mixture to im- 
pair its ability to resist pressure and heat, there is sum- 



242 THE IRON-FOUNDER. 

cient used to make it more easy to clean the casting after 
it has burned away. 

Such a mixture allows for the maximum amount of ram- 
ming, and, only in very confined parts, no venting, unless 
it be done with the view of helping to carry off the steam 
during the process of drying. 

Too frequently we see the same amount of time and care 
expended to secure hanging sand in dry-sand moulds as 
must be spent on green-sand. This, of course, is a sheer 
waste of time. A little reflection will reveal the fact that, 
allowing the mould to remain, whilst drying, in the same 
position as when finished, very few of the green-sand meth- 
ods of gaggers and irons are needed, simply because it re- 
quires considerable pounding to break it apart when once 
it is properly dried, and for these reasons considerable lati- 
tude is allowed in the choice of help for ramming up dry- 
sand work. 

The above mixture allows for the blackening and finish- 
ing of the mould while in the green state, and, as it is im- 
possible to damage this stony surface by too much sleeking 
with the tools, there can be no excuse for not producing 
the most elegant finish. 

For pipes, hydraulic cylinders, rams, guns, and all cast- 
ings rammed on end, in casings which allow for just suf- 
ficient sand to make a safe job, the sand must necessarily 
be all of one heap, composed of exactly the same ingredi- 
ents, minus the flour, the latter being superfluous for such 
work, because, the surfaces being all plain, and the distance 
from the casting to the outside being very short, the gases 
generated on the surface pass quickly away, and inasmuch 
as there are no sharp angles or confined parts to break the 
surface, such work usually skins clean if the proper black- 
ening is used. Of course, constant renewal is necessary to 
keep this sand up to the right consistency. 



TO MOULD A STEAM-CYLINDER IN DRY SAND. 243 



TO MOULD A STEAM-CYLINDER IN DRY SAND. 

In order to make the subject of dry-sand moulding in- 
telligible to those who are not conversant with this branch 
of the trade, it will be necessary to take a few leading 
jobs, choosing such as will bring out in detail, the leading 
principles involved in the production of all such work. 

The chief object aimed at by this mode of procedure is 
not the mere description of how such a job is made, but 
rather to inculcate such principles in the mind of the reader 
as will enable him not only to apply them, when learned, 
to other jobs, but will also help him to think for himself 
as to how he might accomplish the same end by means 
perhaps widely different, but equally safe. 

Fig. 198 is a horizontal section, Fig. 199 side elevation, 
Fig. 200 cross-section, and Fig. 201 front elevation of the 
cylinder we propose to mould. Its chief dimensions are 
30 inches diameter and 6 feet long. 

It will be seen that the exhaust is placed at A, Fig. 200, 
and that the cylinder is intended to be secured to its foun- 
dation by the bearers or feet B and C, which extend the 
whole length of the cylinder. 

We first determine that it shall be cast on end, with a 
" head " or extension, cast on the top end, to receive the 
sullage which always gathers in the mould as the metal is 
poured in. A careful inspection of Figs. 197 and 202 
will enable the reader to see the whole plan of operations 
required to bring the mould to this advanced condition. 

Contrary to the generally adopted method of moulding 
cylinders on the side, I have, for special reasons, preferred 
to show how to mould this one with the steam-chest down 
and both bearers in the cope. This, as will be seen, neces- 



244 



THE IRON-FOUNDER. 



sitates the use of a three-part flask, as shown at B, C, D, 
Fig. 197 and 202. 

Should it be thought desirable to carry all the sand in 
the cheek by the use of bars, as seen at Fig. 203, then there 
would be no need for the lifting-plate E\ but the latter 
will be found a very useful adjunct to the rig, and saves 



Fig. 198, 



Fig. 200? 




Fig. 199. 



Fig. 201. 



considerable expense and time when it can be substituted 
for the bars spoken of. 

The manner of ramming cheek and bottom flask when 
the plate E is used is to set the bottom half of pattern on 
a face-board with the steam-chest up, place the cheek over 
and proceed to ram, securing all overhanging sand, as in- 
dicated by F and G, by the insertion of irons reaching 
from the box inwards, as shown, All such parts "as exhaust 



TO MOULD A STEAM-CYLINDER IN DRY SAND. 245 

branches, stuffing-boxes, etc., can be more easily rammed 
and secured by using the plate in this case; but the bars. 




Fig. 203, will be found to be indispensable in many other 
jobs. 

In making plate E it will be seen that it allows for the 



246 



THE IRON-FOUNDER 



parting to be made at the upper edge of the steam-chest 
flange. This places all of the flange in the bottom flask, 
and will be found an important feature when setting in 
the steam -chest core. 

When the cheek is rammed and the plate firmly bedded 
down on the sand and bolted to the cheek, as seen at E, 
Fig. 197, it will be seen that the only portion of parting 
which requires to be made is from the edge of the plate to 
the edge of flange, after which the bottom flask is placed 
and secured, as shown at E, E, Fig. 197, and the ramming 
completed. 

After rolling over the two lower boxes and making good 




Fig. 203. 



the joint, set in position the two arbors H and H, which 
are made to carry that portion of sand between the joint 
and the under side of bearers /and i", Fig. 197. 

By referring to Figs. 204 and 205, it will be seen that these 
arbors are made so as to rest on the ends some distance past 
the flange of cylinder in both instances. Fig. 204 shows one 
end of pattern and sectional elevation of arbor set in posi- 
tion, and Fig. 205 is plan of the same. As will be seen, 
provision for lifting with the cope, and separating when the 
latter is lifted off, is made by casting a nut in each end. 

The points of separation are made at the ends by the 
slanting bar A, Fig. 208, and along the back, as seen at H 
and H, Fig. 197. 



TO MOULD A STEAM-CYLINDER IN DRY SAND. 247 

I am aware that a block -print and core will accomplish 
all that the arbor does for this job, and is to be preferred 
in some instances; but I deem it well to introduce the arbor 
here, as it will be found to be a very useful device in gen- 
eral practice. 

In making patterns for such a job as this, it will be found 
best to have the two halves of the body separate from the 



Fig. 204. 




Fig. 205. 

rest of the pattern, bearers in cope, steam-chest, and all 
other appendages being secured to them by screws from the 
inside. 

As will be seen at F y Fig. 202, the lower end of cope and 
cheek are made closed edges, whilst the head end G, Fig. 
202, is made open, to allow of the body core passing through 
a distance sufficient to form the runner basin around it, 
the gates being cut direct from the outer edge, as shown 
at G — the larger one, seen at GG, being the riser. 

The practice of cutting a main runner around the upper 



248 THE IRON-FOUNDER 

core-seat, through which the iron passes from one large 
leader, and from thence into the casting at intervals all 
round, is not a good one, as it is more than likely that 
most of the iron, if not all of it, is absorbed by those near- 
est the leader, the dirt, of course, following in its wake. 

It is to obviate this bad feature of running that the 
method shown at Fig. 202 is advocated, because it allows of 
the main runner being made all round the core, and enter- 
ing the mould at as many places as possible, always taking 
care to miss such cores as connect with the body, and thus 
assuring a thorough breaking up of the scum as it rises 
during the process of pouring. 

How to make the body core, as shown in Fig. 202, is 
fully explained in article on core-making. One special 
feature in these barrels, however, is that the lower end of 
barrel may be made so as to close in the end by having a 
solid plate on that end, the top to be the same as shown 
at Fig. 123 of the article quoted. The object aimed at 
by this device is to secure absolute safety by making it 
impossible for any of the molten iron to find its way to the 
inside of the barrel. 

To secure the lower end in all other respects, it is shown 
that the seating is cut clear to the box end, as seen at H, 
Fig. 202. When closing, the body core is kept back from 
the box, to allow of a ramming of sand behind, which ram- 
ming is continued after the cope is closed over through the 
space i, which is left open for this purpose. 

To prevent the barrel from slipping when the mould is 
turned on end, the packings shown at / are inserted. 

In making the bottom flask D the bars must be arranged 
after the manner shown at Fig. 206, the central space to be 
as wide as possible, so that easy access may be had to all 
the vents and staples connected with the cores. 

At J, Fig. 197, is shown a space dug out, to allow of the 
exhaust flange being withdrawn. This, of course, is the 



TO MOULD A STEAM-CYLINDER IN DRY SAND. 249 

only way of reaching this flange when the exhaust branch 
is made after this manner, and can only be dispensed with 
by the use of block cores, either rammed against the pat- 
tern or inserted into suitable bearings after the withdrawal 
of the pattern; both of which modes are objectionable, on 
account of the seam produced at the junction of the mould 
and core. When it is practicable, as in this case, the 
method herein described is the best. 
The space J is to be packed with sand after the core- 



XL 



u 



Fig. 206. 



cake K and exhaust core L have been permanently fixed in 
their true positions. 

Cores if and L, Fig. 202, are to be kept in the spaces 
shown behind them until the cheek is closed over the steam- 
chest core, when they can be drawn forth into the seatings 
prepared for them in the chest core, as seen ; and, as these 
cores must be held in position by packiug in sand behind 
them, provision must be made for that purpose, either by 
having holes in the end of the flasks, or by cutting down 
to them from the joint at the most convenient place. 



250 THE IRON-FOUNDER 



CORES FOR MOULDING STEAM-CYLINDERS IN 

DRY SAND. 

The subject of cores will now occupy our attention; and 
let me say here that too much importance cannot be at- 
tached to it, as too frequently we see disaster attend the 
using of cores which have not been intelligently made. 

Ordinary cores are not to be thought of for this class of 
work. The risk is too great : very many dry-sand as well 
as loam moulders refuse to use cores except those made by 
themselves, and unless the very best skill be employed to 
produce such cores, they are perfectly justified in the 
course they pursue. 

It is my purpose, in describing how to make a set of 
cores for this cylinder, to give rules which will meet all the 
requirements in the simplest possible way; and while some 
of them may not be new to men of a wide experience, it is 
safe to say that to countless others in the trade they will 
prove valuable information. 

The steam-chest as well as the ports and exhaust cores 
are shown in position in Figs. 197 and 202; a careful 
examination of the cuts will show how the chest core is 
made, as well as how best to secure it in its place. 

The grate or " core-iron" is made with prickers reaching 
into all the remote parts of the core, care being exercised 
to leave an open space opposite each of the three cores which 
are set on it in their respective seats; the sand between these 
seats is held firmly by the prickers shown. Sufficient bear- 
ing is left at the ends of each seating on which to rest the 
ports and exhaust cores, and it will improve the job very 
much if these bearings are made by setting in iron bear- 



CORES FOR MOULDING STEAM- CYLINDERS. 251 

ings when the chest core is made. It will be seen, also, 
that staples are cast into the chest core-iron, with which to 
bolt the same firmly in its seating, as shown at Figs. 197 
and 202. 

To make port cores have the core-box made open, as 
shown at Fig. 207, with end pieces with which to form that 
part, and a sweep to form the upper side. 




American Mar?tinist 



Fig. 207, 



The core-irons for all such cores, of any magnitude, are 
best made as shown at Fig. 208. The manner of making 
such an iron is to have a pattern made the exact form of 
the core-print, but somewhat smaller, and about three 
fourths of the depth of core-print; a correct impression of 
this print is formed in the sand bed, and into it are cast 
holes for vents, staples for bolting into place, and wrought- 
irons, previously bent to form of core-box, of the requisite 
strength to form a strong core, these irons being further 
stiffened by securing cross-irons with tie wire, as shown. 



252 



THE IRON-FOUNDER 



When this core is made, have the vents set after the 
manner shown at Fig. 209, which figure represents the core 
as cut off at the top vents to show their correct position, 
also to explain the manner of connecting the vent after the 
core has been dried. 

When the core is made, the vent-rods pierce the core and 
meet at A ; when dry, a gutter is cut from B to C and the 




American Machinist 

Fig. 208. 



rope passed in at D ; the gutter is then filled up safely and 
the rope withdrawn, leaving a clean vent-hole midway 
along the whole length of the core. 

The above-described method of venting is much safer 
than to attempt the drawing of ropes through the core 
whilst it is green. 

It is needless for me to say that the above is the very 
best way to make a port core, and when once adopted the 
system soon finds its way to other cores of different shape, 
for it must be admitted to be the acme of simplicity. 

By referring to Fig. 210 it will be seen that in no sense 



CORES FOR MOULDING STEAM-CYLINDERS. 253 

could the above-described method be improved on, even in 
the exhaust core for this job, and again at Fig. 211, where 
the block-print is again shown as used for an exhaust core, 




Fig. 209. 



which, coming out higher up in the mould, requires a more 
elaborate core-iron than the one in question ; such core-iron 
being simply two grates cast into the block-print A, 




Fig. 210. 



packed between and bolted together. Figs. 212 and 213 
show sections at print ends, and Fig. 214 is section at B. 
Two very important features in work of this class are 



254 



THE IRON-FOUNDER. 



securing cores in their respective positions, and leading off 
the vents. By the adoption of the block-print absolute 
safety is assured as to the former, and the latter is made 
equally as safe by using pipes as leaders. It will be readily 
seen how one thing helps the other in this case; for, on 
account of the vent-hole being in the solid iron, the pipes 
may be ground in to fit the hole, or tapped, as may be 
thought best. With such a rig as this there need be no fear 



Fig. 214. 



Fig. 211. 



Fig. 213. 




. Ainerican^3IacKinist\ 

Fig. 2I2. 



of doing damage when the spaces MM, Fig. 197, are being 
packed with sand after the whole mould has been up-ended, 
which operation needs to be done to prevent leakage at 
those parts. 

If the principles laid down in the foregoing be strictly 
followed there will be no difficulty in doing away with the 
use of paste or any other damp preparation. I would ad- 
vise moulders to avoid all such objectionable helps, as they 
not only soften the mould and cores, but also create steam, 
which is something not to be desired if good sound work is 
looked for; if it is deemed necessary to use a stopping at 
any critical point, let it be putty, which contains less mois- 
ture. 



GORES FOR MOULDING STEAM- CYLINDERS. 255 

If cast studs and chaplets are used for this class of work, 
be sure that they are new, or at least perfectly free from 
rust, and if wrought-iron is used it is best to have the stock 
well ground before they are made, in order that the same 
shall be free from scale and rust; the mere operation of 
heating studs before using them is not always sufficient to 
destroy the accumulations of rust upon them, and if such 
studs are used and the heat be sufficient to decompose the 
rust upon them when the mould is poured, the disengaged 
gases will give trouble either by causing blown places in 
the casting, or, if enough gas be generated, by blowing up 
the job. 

If studs are to lay long in the mould with any possibility 
of dampness reaching them, it is well to paint them, whilst 
warm, with a good coat of turpentine mixed with red-lead; 
this will prevent the rust from forming on them. 

If a mould or core is damaged by being chipped or 
broken, do not attempt to repair such places with new ma- 
terial. It is much better practice to pound some of the 
same material simiarly baked, and moisten with very thin 
clay-water; this will adhere more readily than the new, 
there being less shrinkage in it. 

It will be found best, when practicable, to set all port 
cores back from the body core as much, at least, as will 
allow of the fin being easily broken through after the cyl- 
inder has been bored; this allows any accumulations of fine 
dirt to pass upwards through the space, leaving it cleaner 
at that point by just as much as passed through the aper- 
ture. 



256 



THE IRON-FOUNDER. 



JACKET-CORES FOR MOULDING STEAM- 
CYLINDERS. 

The subject of jacket-cores is a very important one, and 
demands our attention for a time. 

It is true that in many places they have so arranged 
matters as to make a very simple job out of what was once 
a very critical one. 

I think the most critical jackets to deal with in dry-sand 
work are those which allow of no other communication 
with the outside than can be obtained by about four round 
holes of the same diameter as the thickness of the jacket- 




Fig. 215. 



core, which in this instance we will suppose to be 2£ 
inches. These outlets, four in number, are equally divided 
at one end. Nearly all small cylinders of this class are 
made in loam, it being by many considered to be the only 
safe way to make them. 

I claim, however, that such a job can be made absolutely 
safe in dry sand, if the plan of making herein suggested be 
adopted. 

Fig. 215 is the plan, an 61 Fig. 216 is a sectional elevation 



JACKET-GORES FOR MOULDING STEAM-CYLINDERS. 257 

of the jacket-core ; A, B, C, and D in plan represent the 
position of the four holes spoken of, through which all the 
gas generated in the core must pass, as they are also the 
only ones through which to withdraw the same after it is 
cast. 

It will be seen that the core-iron is simply a cage com- 



ji 






1 



E 



F 



G 



(>■ 



©J" 



BL 



©K 



Fig. 216. 



posed of three rings, as shown by shaded portion in plan, 
into which are cast the rods, cast or wrought, represented 
by black circles in plan ; at A, B> C, and D pipes are sub- 
stituted for the solid rods, through which all the gas will 
pass, preparation for that object being made by filing holes 
at intervals along the pipes, as shown at A, B, Cand D, 
Fig. 216. The white circles on the plan represent holes 
cast alternately with the irons and pipes, through which 
vent-rods are passed when the core is made. 



258 



THE IRON-FOUNDER. 



To cast this cage, make middle ring, and thrust irons 
and pipes down into the soft bed the requisite depth, then 
cast and lift the whole into the second ring plumb and to 
the correct depth ; another similar operation for the oppo- 
site end, and the cage is made. 

The four pipes must be long enough to stand through 
the core, as shown at E, Fig. 216, so that, when the jacket- 
core has been made, the cores may be slipped on and made 
secure. 

To make such a core, strike up a dummy with bricks 




Fig. 217. 



and mud, as loosely built as possible, and after thoroughly 
drying said dummy, and preparing for separating easily, 
place over and around it the cage, set in the vent-rods all 
round, and strike up the whole in loam of a good open 
nature. 

When this core has been dried the dummy may be dug 
out, and the vents connected after this manner. File out 
a gutter opposite each of the holes indicated at A, B, C, 
and D in the pipes, and at the same time cutting into the 
vertical vents E, as seen at F, G, H, and /; into this gut- 
ter a greased rope must be set, and the gutter made good 
over it, the rope being drawn along as piece after piece of 
the break is mended. 



JACKET-CORES FOR MO ULDING STEAM-CYLINDERS. 259 

When this has been done, and all holes, except the pipes, 
have been securely stopped, the core may be considered a 
perfect one, as far as vents are concerned. 

At J and K I have shown lngs cast on the ring, and 
afterwards tapped for lifting purposes, and at L will be 
seen how to make an absolutely safe connection when it is 
desired to briug the gas away through passages in the side, 
which is simply to cast a lug on the ring in correct posi- 
tion, and have a main vent directly at the back of the lug. 




m 



Iral 



JC 



K 



o\ 



JL 



Ml 



■c 



s 



Fig. 218. 

This lug is to be tapped so as to receive a pipe which has 
been threaded at both ends, the outer thread being used for 
securing the nozzle core to the jacket. When this is prop- 
erly done, a direct communication is preserved with the 
core-vent, and no possibility of any iron finding its way 
into it. 

Fig. 217 is a plan of the mould showing body-core A and 
a sectional view of the jacket-core in position. 

Fig. 218 is a side elevation of the mould showing the 
jacket-core A in position, supported by studs, as seen at 
AB, Fig. 219. 

To enable the reader to better understand the upper 
arrangement for setting the jacket, I have shown the form 
of the top end of the lower half of the flask used for this 



260 



THE IRON-FOUNDER. 



job at Fig. 220. It will be seen at B,¥'ig. 218, that, instead 
of parting the mould at this end in the usual way, I have 
carried the pattern, block fashion, as far past the end, 
and full size of pattern, as will give sufficient bearing for 
the body-core, making the parting over the top, and leav- 
ing a good body of sand between the end of pattern and 
flask, as seen at C, Fig. 218. 

Fig. 221 will explain the way in which the cores are 
arranged that fill the block, and at the same time surround 
the four vent-cores of the jacket as well as the body-core, 
it being the end elevation of all the section cores, as they 





Fig. 219. 



Fig. 220. 



appear at line D, Fig. 218 ; the staples also are shown, by 
which the several sections are secured by hook-bolts — shown 
at Fig. 218— which pass through the holes marked 1, 2, 3, 
4, 5, 6, 7, 8, Fig. 220, and are there made fast to cross-bars, 
the remaining four holes being those prepared for the vent- 
pipes. 

After section E, Fig. 221, has been placed in position, as 
seen at E, Fig. 218, the jacket-core is set, and sections F and 
F put in, as seen at F, Fig. 218. This disposes of the two 
lower holes, and brings us up to the middle of the joint, as 
well as forms the seating for the body-core, which is now 
inserted by entering it at the opposite end, that end having 
been made an open one for the purpose ; sections G and G 



J A CKET- COMES FOR MO ULDING STEAM- CYLINDERS. 261 

are now added, as seen at G, Fig. 218, and the whole capped 
with section H, shown again at H, Fig. 218. 

A careful inspection at E, Fig. 216, will show how easy 
it will be, in this case, to make the outlet for the vent se- 
cure. All that is needed is to have the ends of the pipes 
threaded, on which can be screwed connections which will 
reach through the end at holes J, J, J, and J, midway be- 
tween the figured holes, as seen at Fig. 220, also at J and J, 
Fig. 218. These holes must be made large enough to per- 
mit of sand being rammed round the pipe, thus making 
the whole job a very safe one. 

The system of studding adopted in this example will 





Fig. 221. 



Fig. 222. 



show how the moulder may control every chaplet and stud 
used in the job, and by so doing leave nothing to chance. 

It is best to have top studs secured after the plan shown 
at iTand K } Fig. 218, and again at Fig. 219, clamps being 
either cast in or bolted to the cross-bars for the purpose ; 
the end studs, shown in plan at Fig. 222, can be secured 
thus : Let bottom studs L and L y Fig. 218, be set back 
until the jacket-core is placed ; they can then be brought 
forward and wedged behind ; those at M and if being at the 
joint, can be readily adjusted, as also can the one at JV; 
the one shown at can be set back so as to clear the jacket- 
core when the cope is lowered over, when it can be pushed 
forward and wedged, as shown, provision being made for 
this by leaving a hand-hole at the point P. 



262 



THE IRON-FOUNDER. 



Another class of jackets are such as connect the outer 
with the inner shell by a series of ribs lengthwise with the 
cylinder, allowing for as many separate cores as there are 
ribs in the casting. 

Usually a small hole is allowed on the bottom of each 
core, with a somewhat larger one at the top, and this one 
can be utilized for carrying off the gas. 

Of course these cores must all have their own vent ; but 
as this can be done by passing a wire or wires from one end 
to the other, these cores are not very difficult to manage. 

It is not a very difficult job to make such cylinders in 



^•"■'■' ;"7 



n 



>/>//jw»;w> 



n 




7ZZZZ. 



vj)-> 



££ 



V»f>,»V»»/M. 




Fig. 223. 



Fig. 224. 



Fig. 225. 



Fig. 226. 



dry sand. Fig. 226 shows sectional elevation of mould, 
looking at the end ; Figs. 223, 224, and 225 show plans of 
the bottom half of mould and cores in section ; Figs. 223 
and 224 show the arrangement of all the cores, when the 
bore is straight through. A in all the figures represents 
the body-core as resting on the jacket-cores marked 1, 2, 3, 
4, 5, and 6 in plan, Fig. 226, equally divided on each side 
of port-cores, indicated by broken lines at B. 

When the body-core has been set, all that remains to be 
done is to set the cores 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11, Fig. 226, and 
proceed to close over the upper half of mould. 

It is important that all these cores should be the very 
best that can be produced, every precaution being taken to 
use none but what are perfectly sound ; the best core-iron 
for such a core is the one shown in section at Fig. 227, A 



JACKET-CORES FOR MOULDING STEAM-CYLINDERS. 263 

being section of core proper, exposing vents, and B repre- 
senting the addition at the ends with gate or runner C. 
Fig. 228 shows the form of the iron as it lays in the core- 
box, and it is plain that with such an iron there can be no 
difficulty in making a reliable core. 

Fig. 225 shows section of bottom half of mould with the 
cores all set, when there is to be an internal flange cast on 
the cylinder, as shown in figure. 

The reduction of diameter of core, as shown at C, Figs. 
225 and 226, necessitates the use of two half-cores to fill 
the space, as shown at D, D, with body-core resting in bot- 
tom half. 





American Machinist 



Fig. 228. 



By again referring to Fig. 226 it will be seen that, when 
body-core C has been set upon block-core D, all that re- 
mains to be done is to secure the other half of block-core E 
in position, and proceed as before directed. 

In making flasks for this job, prepare for taking the gas 
out at the upper end of jacket-cores, by casting holes in 
the box end, through which to pass the vent-pipes, as 
shown at B and B, Fig. 223 ; also, in arranging the cope 
bars, let the end ones in each case be placed so that the 
end spaces may be left unrammed, exposing about one third 
of the print end of the jacket-cores, as represented by 
broken lines in Figs. 223, 224, and 225. This will enable 
you to make the whole arrangement of jacket-cores abso- 
lutely safe, by ramming in sand at the ends after the cope 
is closed. 



264 THE IRON-FOUNDER. 



MOULDING GUNS, HYDRAULIC CYLINDERS, 

ETC. 

When" hydraulic cylinders, rams, shafting, pipes, guns, 
etc., become so ponderous and unwieldy as to make it im- 
practicable to mould them in top and bottom flasks, re- 
course is usually had to the method of casings, made to 
the form of the job for which they are intended, these 
being prepared for casting either by ramming sand in them 
— using a pattern to be drawn out endwise — or by " strik- 
ing" on the inner surface a thickness of loam, using a 
spindle and sweep for that purpose. 

As the latter method comes under the head of " loam 
moulding," we shall pass it over and consider only such as 
are made in dry sand ; and as one good example taken in 
detail will serve to bring out most if not all of the prin- 
ciples involved in the production of this class of work, we 
will take for such an example a Rodman gun, about 16 
inches bore and 16 feet long, exclusive of sinking head, 
which we will suppose to be about 3 feet long. 

To effect an equal cooling of the whole mass, when cast, 
a stream of cold water is introduced into the barrel, 
through the top at A, Fig. 229, passing downwards to near 
the bottom of the core-barrel through a pipe inserted for 
the purpose, and again rising up, filling the space between 
the pipe and the barrel ; escaping at B. 

The water is forced through at a pressure sufficient to 
enable it to carry off the heat as fast as it escapes from the. 
casting, thus enabling those in charge to regulate the cool- 
ing of the gun, so as to preserve an even grain throughout 
the mass, with comparative freedom from fracture, — some- 
thing it is next to impossible to do by any other known 
method. 



MOVLDWG GUNS, UYBHAULIC CYLINDERS, ETC. 26b 

Fuller details of the device for introducing the water 
into the barrel are shown at Fig. 230. 

Fig. 229 is a sectional elevation of the whole mould and 
flasks, as it stands in the pit ready to receive the molten 





3cl 




3 

] 


1 1 


1 




II 




if 


1 1 


' r 


i 


1 III 


Vr 


i ' 


V* £••' 




,11 




m 



Fig. 229. 

iron ; by referring to enlarged plan of same, Fig. 231, it 
will be seen that the section is taken at the points A and 
A, thus revealing the position of the running gates, the 
lowest of which must be set to give a rotary motion to the 
molten iron. 

If these bottom gates are made large enough, sufficient 



266 



THE IRON-FOUKDER. 



force will be given by them to keep the iron revolving 
round the core until it has passed the trunnions, and by 
this means preventing the dirt from finding a lodgment 
there; the upper gates augment the speed of the pouring, 
which perceptibly slackens as the mould fills, and also serve 
the purpose of keeping the iron in good condition at the 
top all through the cast — something very desirable when 
we remember how clean such a casting must be. 




Fig. 230. 



Fig. 232 shows full-length section of mould at the trunnion 
side, and also aids the reader in arriving at a full knowl- 
edge of the whole set of flasks or casings used. 

As shown at Fig. 232, and again in plan at Fig. 231, the 
handling of these flasks is accomplished by slings which 
are made to fit the swivels seen. 

That section which contains the trunnion calls for 
special mention, inasmuch as the trunnion pierces the 
casing, which is there strengthened by forming a circular 
box or pocket with an outer flange ; this, of course, must 
be cast in one piece with the casing for that section. 

This pocket must be true to position, with a slight taper 



MOULDING GUNS, HYDRAULIC CYLINDERS, ETC. 267 

to receive the trunnion core when the casing is rammed; 
over this a strong plate with swivel attached is bolted. 
This, as will readily be observed, allows of this section being 
handled in the same manner as the rest. 

No one without some knowledge of pressures and the 
strength of materials should attempt to prepare the ap- 
paratus needed for the construction of a job like this with- 



a 




Fig. 231. 



out first consulting some one acquainted with such sub- 
jects. Disasters are happening every day on this account, 
and men ought to learn from bitter experience the neces- 
sity for more knowledge upon matters so important. 

These flasks should be 1^ inches thick at the bottom and 
1 inch thick at the top, with flanges and ribs corresponding 
to thickness of sides, and all flanges should be wide enough 
to allow of 1 inch of iron outside the bolt-holes. 

As shown, these casings are made in halves, parting at 
A A, Fig. 231. When made they must be bolted firmly 
together and turned at the ends so that they will not only 



m 



THE 1B0N-F0UNDBB. 



fit each other true, but will also fit the face-plate shown at 
AA, Fig. 233. 

This plate is turned and prepared as shown, for the pur- 
pose of receiving the pattern, flask, and gate-pins of all the 
sections. 

Fig. 233 is intended to explain the manner of changing 



Fig. 233. 





American Machinist 

Fig. 232. 



for each section; the reader will be helped very much by 
observing the plan view of the same at Fig. 234 ; on the left 
hand of Fig. 233 it will be seen that the pattern is set for 
the smallest or " head section." These patterns are cast- 
iron, turned to size, and fitted with bottom guides to fit 
face-plate, as seen at C, which is turned to receive the 
same. 



MOULDING GUNS, HYDRAULIC CYLINDERS, ETC. 269 

This being the smallest piece, the gate-pin is guided by 
the inside hole at D, and the flask is held in position by 
the shoulder at E. 

To form the moulds in the other flasks on the same face- 
plate and with equal facility and correctness, rings F and 
G — also turned to fit — are set on respectively, and the 
operation duplicated. 

The right-hand view shows these rings in position, and 
the flask for the breech set thereon and rammed ; this, of 
course, is the largest in diameter; flask H is seen over the 




Fig. 235. 



edge of the outer ring, the gate-pin /occupying the outer 
hole. 

The bottom section of this mould may be rammed over 
a face-board and pattern, or struck with spindle and sweep, 
or any other suitable guide-way. 

A set of casings, got up after the design just explained, 
eradicates all the difficulties in obtaining a true mould, as 
moulds having a vertical height of thirty-five feet may be 
made in them, with comparatively no deviation from a 
straight line. 

The barrel for this core should be not less than one inch 
thick, and for obvious reasons must be perfectly sound, 
with grooves at intervals around the circumference; the 
expense of cutting these grooves may be saved if, when 
the barrel is made, prints be set on the pattern into which 
cores may be inserted along its length. Fig. 235 will give 



270 



THE IRON-FOUNDER. 



some idea of what is meant ; the form of groove shown is 
the least likely to damage the barrel from shrinkage. 

These barrels should have at least f-inch taper in their 
entire length. 

There is naturally more handling of such a core as this 

Fig. 236. 




Fig. 237. 



than is ordinarily the case, and, in order to facilitate this 
extra usage, I have shown at Figs. 236 and 237 the neces- 
sary preparations. 

At A, Fig. 230, the gland is shown which holds the down 
pipe in position as well as serving to make good the joints 
at the top. During the process of making the core we 
substitute the plate A, Fig. 236, for the one shown at A, 
Fig. 230, bolting it to the barrel after the manner shown at 



MOULDING GUNS, HYDRAULIC CYLINDERS, ETC. 271 

Fig. 230, and for the opposite end a tapped hole is pre- 
pared, into which a threaded gudgeon is screwed, as shown 
at Fig. 237. 

The eyes serve to lift by, and the turned shoulders give 
a true motion to the barrel as it revolves on its bearings, 
thus insuring a true core. 

It will be seen at Fig. 237 that holes are cast into which 
irons can be wedged and bent to the form of the core at 
the lower end; this is better than attempting to carry the 



Fig. 238. 

loam at this point with prickers, which are almost certain 
to be broken off the first time it is used. 

The gudgeon at the lower end serves another good pur- 
pose, namely, that when it is desired to raise the core on 
end, previous to lowering it into the mould, the whole 
weight of the core may be sustained by it during the 
operation, keeping the core clear from all likelihood of 
damage, as well as facilitating the operation in a very great 
measure. 

When the core has been suspended the bottom gudgeon 
can be taken out and the hole plugged. 

The bracketed lugs, cast on the core-barrel, and seen at 
BB, Fig. 230, serve a double purpose in this case. As may 



272 



THE IRON-FOUNDER. 



be observed, these lugs rest on the tripod C, at that point 
over the holes shown at plan of same at Fig. 238. This 
tripod must be of sufficient strength not only to sustain 
the weight of the core, but also to resist the pressure under 
the same when the mould is filled, which is far greater 
than its own weight, as may be ascertained by consulting 
article " Pressures in Moulds." 

To accomplish this the barrel is secured to the tripod by 




American Machinist 



Fig. 239. 



bolts, as shown at BB, and the tripod made fast to the 
top flange of casing, as seen at D, Fig. 230. 

I have purposely shown the leg on the left out of posi- 
tion, so that the whole arrangement for setting this core 
might be shown. 

It will be seen at plan, Fig. 238, that there are two holes 
on the ends of each leg; one of these is to bolt down with, 
as at D, Fig. 230, and the other, being a tapped hole, is to 
be used for raising or lowering the core when it is being 
set in position. 



MOULDING GUNS, HYDRAULIC CYLINDERS, ETC. 273 

The terminations of the grooves in the barrel are shown 
at BE, Fig. 230, about twelve inches higher than the top 
of the casting. 

Whatever soft material is used for wrapping the barrel 
before rubbing on the loam, be sure and use no more than 
will barely cover the grooves, and thus keep out the loam ; 
for if too much of hemp, hemp rope, or hay is used, the 
pressure around the core will crush in the loam, the thick- 
ness of which in this instance should not be less than 1J 
inches. 

Some cores for hydraulic cylinders may be required as 
long as thirty feet. These must of necessity be made in 
two lengths, and this can be accomplished very readily by 
adopting the method shown at Fig. 239, which is a sectional 
view of the junction of the two core-barrels. 

The barrels must be made thick enough to allow of one 
being bored out about 18 inches deep to half its thickness 
at that point, and the other turned to a snug fit in the 
same, as shown; a keyway must be prepared to admit a 
tapered key, which, when driven home, will be equidistant 
from each side of the core, the spaces at the back A A, as 
well as the seam G, being afterwards made good. 

To close such a mould with the core made as above de- 
scribed, let the casings be set upon each other until as 
many are down as will allow the first core to stand one foot 
above the joint of the upper casing, indicated by lines 
BB\ the upper length of core can then be set as previously 
explained, and the remaining flasks closed over. 

In bringing these articles to a close, I would say that it 
has been my earnest endeavor to introduce such jobs as 
would bring into operation methods which may be made 
of almost universal application; and whilst it would not 
appear that very many examples have been chosen, it will 
be seen, if a careful analysis is made of the whole, that 
such examples as wore chosen embrace more of the every- 



274 THE IRON-FOUNDER. 

day difficulties which beset the moulder than could possibly 
be found in the same number of any other kind or quality. 
It would, I know, have been easier to have selected a 
larger number, but the description of the methods for 
moulding them would have been a mere repetition, and 
that I have endeavored to avoid. 



TO MOULD CYLINDRICAL WORK IN TOP AND 
BOTTOM FLASKS WITH SPINDLE AND SWEEP. 

When a cylindrical casting is ordered, for which there is 
no pattern of the required diameter, the ordinary method 
is to make the job in loam, if practicable, or else lag up a 
pattern which is nearest to the diameter wanted; very 
often a new pattern is made at considerable cost, and never 
used afterwards. 

All this annoyance and loss may be easily remedied by 
adopting the system which I propose to explain in this 
article. Furthermore, I am convinced from experience 
that very many castings may be made in top and bottom 
flasks with the spindle and sweep as good, and in as short 
a time, as from a pattern, thus saving the cost of pattern- 
making altogether in many instances. 

Sugar-mill rolls, rolls for copper and iron, pipes, shafts, 
side-pipes, etc., are a few of the castings for which this 
method is eminently adapted, the only requisite for the 
successful accomplishment of which is a well-proportioned 
set of flasks suitably equipped. 

For the purpose of thoroughly explaining such a set of 
flasks in detail, I have selected a roll 24 inches diameter, 
with 12-inch necks, to mould. I am thus enabled, by aid 



CYLINDRICAL WORK IN TOP AND BOTTOM FLASKS. 275 

of the several illustrations accompanying this article, to 
show more definitely than could otherwise be done what is 
needed in their design and construction. As will be seen, 
I have not attempted to fill in every detail, but have sim- 
ply given a general outline of the whole, with just enough 
of detail to make the explanation easy. 




Fig. 240. 



The best flask for moulding such work as rolls, pipes, 
etc., or any other plain cylindrical casting, is the one 
shown at Fig. 240. As seen, the sides are drawn over suf- 
ficiently to allow of about as much sand between the flask 
and the casting as there is on the back, which in this case 
is about 6 inches : the width at the joint must be deter- 
mined by the amount of room needed for the upright run- 
ners. By referring to B, Fig. 241, the reader will see the 
position of such runner as arranged for filling the mould 
in preparation, -A common error in making flasks for this 



276 



THE IRON-FOUNDER. 



class of work is that they are not made proportionately 
strong at the outset, the result of which is that in a very 
short time they become dangerous, on account of their 
fractured condition, caused by the unequal expansion and 
contraction of the parts when in use. Let the sides of this 
flask be made of a uniform thickness of f inch, and have 




Fig. 241. 



the webs which connect the flanges come flush, and from 12 
to 15 inches apart, as seen at A, Fig. 240, and depend upon 
it you will not have much trouble from breaks if ordinary 



care is exercised in the handling. 



When it is necessary to strengthen any part of a flask on 
account of extra duty imposed there, do not (if avoidable) 
try to accomplish it by adding thickness, but add webs or 
brackets to give the strength needed. You then attain 
your object without a sacrifice of proportion, 



CYLINDRICAL WOMK IN TOP AND BOTTOM FLASKS 277 

Fig. 240 is a view of four such sides as I have been describ- 
ing, placed in position. The ends are purposely left off, so 
that a view of the inside, showing the position of the bars 
B and (7, can be obtained. Although the handles for lifting 
purposes are only shown at D and E> it is suppposed that 
alZ the sides will have them. They are of wrought-iron, 
and need not stand out further than is required to pass 
the chain through for lifting and rolling over. When, as 
in this case, it is necessary to cast in a vertical position, the 
lugs F, G, H, I are used for raising the mould on end and 
lifting into the pit. Be sure that these lugs are well secured 
to the side by brackets cast on each side of the holes. The 
thickness between the brackets can be increased to H 
inches, on account of the extra wear and tear of that par- 
ticular spot. At J is seen one of the plates which must 
be bolted along the back of the flasks when the bars are 
untrustworthy, or when the mould is so large as to make 
their use absolutely necessary. But with 6-inch spaces 
between the bars, and 6 inches of sand from the mould to 
the back, the using of plates is superfluous, provided the 
bars are made as shown at B, C, with the flange for bolt- 
ing to the sides continued across the back, the mould well 
rammed, and thoroughly dried. These remarks apply only 
to such moulds as we have under consideration, being not 
more than ten feet from top of pouring-basin to base of 
mould. 

Another common mistake in making these flask sides is 
to fill them with holes other than the ones required for 
securing to the cross-bars : these are a source of weakness, 
and should be avoided. If the holes for bolting the bars 
be made longer than their width, as shown, there will be 
sufficient opportunity given for the escape of steam and 
gas. I would here say, that although I have shown all the 
slot holes in these views to have square corners, I favor the 
idea of rounding -them at the ends, as they do not weaken 



278 TEE! IRON-FOUNDER. 

the casting so much. Let the flange along the joint be set 
back so as to leave about -} inch space when they come to- 
gether, into which mud can be packed to prevent leakage 
when the mould is poured. I have shown this space in 
Fig. 240; it will also be observed that all the bolt-holes for 
binding the two parts together are in close proximity to 
the webs. This, of course, obviates the danger of pulling 
away the flange when the flasks are being screwed together. 
It will also be seen that the bars B and are shown solid 
all through. The remarks on superfluous holes in the 
sides apply in this case as well; the fewer the holes the 
longer will be the life of the bar, and the whole thing will 
be benefited thereby. I deem it well to state that all box- 
sides, for purposes such as we have been describing, should 
be cast under pressure; this gives them greater strength, 
and they are easier to handle and fit together. 

By referring to Fig. 241, it will be seen what kind of ends 
are required for such a job. This view gives an outline of 
as much of one half of the flask as is necessary to explain 
the method of rigging the ends. G is the upper end, and, 
like the lower one, D, must in this case be made not less 
than 1^ inches thick. In addition to the holes for securing 
to the sides, as seen at G, there must be holes cast to cor- 
respond with those marked E, F, G, H, to be explained 
further on. The end D is plain along its upper surface, 
excepting a half hole at the centre, to allow of the spindle 
passing through at /, but in end G provision must be made 
for the runners, as seen at A and B, and also for the feed- 
ing-head at J. 

The arrangement for the spindle is simple: four fixings 
are made, similar to the one shown at K, the inside edges 
must be planed true, placed together in pairs, and bored, 
one to take the body of the spindle, the other a little 
smaller; this permits of a little being turned off at one 
end of the spindle to shoulder on both sides of the fixing, 



OTLINDlilGAL WOBK IN TOP AND BOTTOM FLASKS, 279 

and serves to prevent the spindle moving endwise, as shown 
at L. This fixing not only serves as a bearing for the 
spindle, but, as will be seen, forms the joint also. When 
one has been bolted at each end of one of the flasks, as seen 
at K, Fig. 241, place in the spindle and set on the other 
flask, pinning it in the usual manner. iTand L, Fig. 240, 
show two of the pin-holes, and similar ones are supposed 
to be on the opposite side. The other fixings can now be 
brought over the spindle and bolted to the upper flask, 
taking care to have a close fit, with no possibility of their 
shifting during the operation of sweeping the mould. 

Fig. 241 is a representation of the apparatus for sweeping 
the mould. The spindle M is resting on the bearings K, 





Fig. 242. Fig. 243. 

and the sweep N secured to arms and P stands vertical 
to the swept mould. The surface of the joint is made to 
the planed edge of the end fixing by using a straight-edge 
which rests on both ends, and must therefore be as accu- 
rate as the bearings themselves. 

I have shown the runner for this roll extending along its 
length to the lower neck, at which place it is best to run these 
castings after the manner shown in section at Fig. 242. 'B, 
Fig. 242, is that half of upright seen in Fig. 241, and con- 
nects with gate C, so placed that the fluid iron, on entering 
the mould, shall strike the outer surface. This gives it the 
course indicated by the arrows, and of course imparts a 
rapid circular motion to the iron which drives the scum 
and dirt to the centre, to be discharged into the feeding- 
head when the mould has filled. 



280 THE IRON-FOUNDER 

To prepare these moulds, begin by ramming the flask full 
of good ordinary floor-sand, not over damp; strike off the 
joint about -J inch below the fixings at the ends; mark off 
the mould to the sweep, and then cut out the sand about % 
inch clear of the sweep all over; then moisten the surface 
with thin clay-water. It is now ready to be swept, and 
whatever has proved itself a good dry-sand facing for heavy 
work will make a good loam for this purpose, by adding 
water sufficient to bring it to the right consistency for 
working easily. Let a little, which has been made extra 
thin, be rubbed well over the surface before the" loam is 
applied; this helps it to adhere to the sand. 

Whilst this is stiffening go through the same process 
with the other half, by which time the first will be hard 
enough to receive the finishing coat, which need not be 
any other than a little of the same loam thinned down with 
water and put through a fine riddle or sieve. For rough- 
ing it will be found best to push the sharp edge, and in 
finishing the chamfered edge, through the loam ; and should 
it be required to duplicate a job often, it is advisable to 
bind the edge of the sweep with hoop-iron. 

When the mould has been swept, the joint can be fin- 
ished off with the straight-edge, the -g-inch clearance allow- 
ing of just so much thin loam being struck on at that 
part. This gives a good even surface, much superior to 
anything got by sleeking with the trowel. 

I might here observe, that where much of this work is 
done, a half runner of the required size could be made and 
bedded in the sand when the flask is being rammed; the 
same in regard to wobblers, etc., as shown at Fig. 243. One 
half of these can be made to fit the spindle, and rammed 
into position before the sweeping takes place. For the 
benefit of such as have not had any experience in mixing 
blacking for such jobs, the mixture given below will be 
found useful: 



CYLINDRICAL WORK IN TOP AND BOTTOM FLASKS. 281 

To 1 of best mineral, add | good heavy charcoal, \ of 
XX silver lead, \ of hard Lehigh blacking. Mix to the 
right consistency with clay water, just thick enough to 
color the hand, 

Whether the mould is blackened wet or dry, there should 
be about T *g- inch of this blackening brushed or swabbed 




Fig. 244. 

all over it; but it is by far the best to blacken the mould 
while green. 

I shall not waste time and space to prove the necessity 
of thoroughly drying all moulds, especially of pieces that 
are to be bored or turned, for it must be plain to the most 
ignorant that the freer a mould is from steam, the greater 
is the chance of securing a sound casting. 

I do not consider rolls to be in any sense an exception to 
this rule; therefore, however urgent maybe the demand, 
I deem it an injustice to the founder to expect a sound 
casting if time is not allowed for drying the mould before 
it is poured. 



282 



THE IRON-FOUNDEH. 



Fig. 244 is a view of this mould resting on end in the pit; 
The runner-box A and feeding-head B are shown in posi- 
tion. The pit has a 12-inch wall built around it, capped by 
a cast-iron ring two inches thick. After the two parts are 
placed together, and secured by bolts, as seen at C and D, 
ring-bolts like the one shown at E are secured in the four 
end lugs, a short strong chain for the purpose can be hitched 
to the bottom rings, and. the mould raised on end; all four 
can now be used, and the whole lifted clear and lowered 
into place in the pit. 

Fig. 245 is a sectional elevation of the feeding-head rest- 
ing on the box; it is seen to increase in diameter until it is 




about the same size as the neck, and 12 or 15 inches deep. 
This needs to be done so as to have a supply of liquid iron 
above, to follow up the shrinkage which takes place in the 
mould immediately after it is cast. 

It is wise in some instances, as when the iron is unre- 
liable, or the feeding-head necessarily small at A, to use a 
feeding-rod, pushing it through the head and down into 
the body of the roll; this keeps open the communication 
with the supply above, and thus prevents a drawn spot at 
the junction of the neck with the body. The running-head 
as well as the feeding-head are best made in dry sand; it 
adds materially to their safety, besides being cleaner. 

To prepare this runner, have a plate, G, made to clip 
the outside of the flask and the form of the runner-box; 
with wrought pins cast in to correspond with end holes, so 
that after the ring-bolts are taken out the holes will serve 



CYLINDRICAL WORK W TOP AND BOTTOM FLASKS. 283 

to secure the plate to the flask. The frame marked F is 
now placed on the plate G, and the runner raised to the 
level of the frame by a core made for the purpose. When 
this has been rammed and swept oil, it is ready to receive 
the running-head, which, having been rammed on a true 
surface, is readily rubbed down into place. Should there 
be no mould into which the spare iron can be poured, it is 
best to prepare a channel from the feeding-head to a good- 
sized pig in the floor, and run the whole of the iron through 
the mould. It is well, also, to keep the runner as much 
higher than the feeder as will allow of most of the iron es- 
caping from it through the feeder, as described, as it carries 
away the sullage and cold iron, and leaves a good supply of 
clean iron to follow up the shrinkage. 

The general principles laid down in this description for 
making a roll will serve, with some slight modifications, 
for anything else of a like nature, and any of the ordinary 
top and bottom flasks can be converted into a spindle-flask 
by having the ends made to suit. 

Flange-pipes can be swept very readily; brackets, nozzles, 
etc., can be easily attached by a system of block cores to be 
set to the sweep when the box is being rammed. Nor is 
this system confined to dry-sand castings; for with a little 
practice as good green-sand work may be accomplished this 
way as from the pattern. 



PART V. 
GREEN-SAND MOULDING. 



PULLEYS, AND HOW TO MAKE THEM. 

When a firm contemplates making a new set of pulley 
patterns it is very essential that more than one system be 
considered. But very often such is not the case, the whole 
set, from the largest to the smallest, being made after the 
same model, only to be repented of after the expense has 
been incurred of making patterns which are not by any 
meaus the best for the purpose. It is also very interesting 
to observe how various are the methods of moulding from 
the same pattern, as I shall show further on. 

If I should enter a foundry and see a man preparing to 
lift the upper half of the inside of a 6-foot pulley, 12 inches 
deep, with gaggers and cheeks, and was informed that the 
pattern from which he was moulding was a straight rim 
with loose arms, and that this was their regular system of 
making such a pulley, I should at once conclude that it 
would be best for that firm to buy all their pulleys from the 
specialist, and the sooner they began to do so the better. 

As before stated, there are many kinds of patterns. For 
example, we have the straight rim with loose arms; — an ex- 
cellent plan, because of the facility with which rims of any 
width desired can be made from them, by simply setting 
the arms in position to be central after the rim has been 

284 



PULLEYS, AND HOW TO MAKE THEM. 



285 



drawn to the width required. A sectional view of such a 
pattern is shown at Fig. 246. 

Then, again, we have the pattern with the arms either 
cast to the rim or secured to it after it has been turned true 
on both faces, and good draught allowed on the inside 
(Fig. 247); also those made in halves, as shown at Fig. 248. 

Fig. 249 shows another form, being simply the top half of 
rim, loose from the body. 

We have in these selections a goodly array to choose from, 
and whilst, in my opinion, the one shown at Fig. 246 is the 



H 




Fig. 246. 



Fig. 247. 



m^'«m 




Fig. 248. 



Fig. 249. 



best for general purposes, we cannot afford to ostracize the 
rest, for, as I shall presently demonstrate, they all possess 
merits peculiar to them, which cannot be denied nor be 
dispensed with, if we would make the best of our oppor- 
tunities. 

Beginning in their order, as above described, we will 
proceed to analyze the several methods by which we can 
make pulleys from the loose arms and rim. Fig. 250 is a full 
view of such a pattern — 6 feet diameter, 12 inches deep. 
The inside is rammed up to the joint of the arms, and the 
lifting-plates or arbor set down thereon. It will be seen that 
all these plates are bound together by clamps which are cast 
in when the arbor is made, as also are the three lifting- 
staples, A, B, and C. Unlike most arbors of this kind 
which I have seen, I choose to have the flat side of the 
plates down on the bed, as shown, because it is so much 
easier to make the joint. To make an arbor like this, place 
the arms on a true bed and mark off the clearance all 



286 



THE IRON-FOUNDER. 



around. This impression will be taken on the cope, which 
must be rammed on the bed. After the cope is lifted off, 
as many feet or guide-pins as are requisite can be set in, the 
the marks serving as a guide to place them.. Be sure and 
make them large, so as to have good taper and plenty of 
length. 

Fig. 251 shows a section of plate, with foot A. The pat- 
tern for the plates can now be bedded to the lines on the 
bottom, after which the clamps and staples can be sunk in 



Fig. 250. 




Fig. 251. 



their places. Be careful to have the ends of the clamps 
clean and well jagged, to take a good grip of the iron, or 
they will soon jar loose. Another important item is to have 
the connecting clamps strong; otherwise it will soon be 
twisted out of shape. With such a rig as this, pulleys can 
be made very readily. 

Of course, I am now speaking of such as have but one set 
of arms. When one with double arms is to be made, the 
bottom set of plates must be cast separate, on account of 
their withdrawal when the pulley is cast. If two sets of 



PULLEYS, AND HOW TO MAKE THEM. 



287 



arm patterns are supplied, cast nuts in the loose bottom- 
plates to correspond with holes in the arbor- plates, through 
which bolts can be inserted to bind the two sets of plates 
together, after the top set of arms has been taken out and 
that portion of the mould finished. 

I incline to the opinion that no particular advantage 
accrues from the use of two sets of arms, for all that is 
needed to accomplish the job with one set is to cast three 
studs on the back of each of the bottom-plates long enough 
to give a sufficient body of sand over the arms. A staple 





Fig. 252. 



Fig. 253. 



is also needed in the centre of the plate which is to pass 
through a spider made to rest on the studs. A key can then 
be driven home between the staple and spider, and all will be 
secure. I have shown this arrangement in plan and eleva- 
tion at Figs. 252 and 253. It will be seen that the whole 
rig can be keyed together off the mould and used after the 
manner of the upper arbor. In this case the rim will have 
to be drawn out of the mould after the ramming has 
reached the height of the spider, and placed back again 
after the arms have been taken out, the mould finished, 
;mk! the upper. portion of mould set down in place, The 



288 



THE IRON-FOUNDER. 



keys can now be knocked out, the spider lifted away, and 
the mould proceeded with in the usual manner. 

Although the arbor just described is a good one, and has 
many admirers, yet all admit its liability to warp out of 
form, so that it would appear that there still remains room 
for improvement. Fig. 254 is the sketch of an arbor which 
can be used very readily for all sizes from 12 inches to 12 feet 
diameter. This arbor is perfectly rigid, and cannot possi- 
bly get out of order. A good way to make such an arbor 




Fig. 254. 



is to make a pattern of one half, quarter, sixth, or eighth, 
according to size of pulley. You then have the pattern by 
you ready for emergencies, whereas if they are made from 
rings and loose pieces the probability is that you will have 
a new rig to make every time. In making this arbor cut 
out to clear the arms (this allows of the iron coming down 
on the joint), and cast on good, stout feet, with plenty of 
taper, as directed for the plates. 

Before quitting the subject of moulding from a loose arm 
and straight-rimmed pattern, I would call attention to an 
ingenious way of using it in sizes from 12 inches to 30 
inches diameter. Let us suppose one 30 inches diameter 
and 8 inches face. The first operation is to place the rim 



PULLEYS, AND HO W TO MAKE THEM. 



289 



on a face-board and set in the arms (the best method of 
doing tliis is to have a block which will not only centre the 
arms, but will at the same time form the joint), have a 
three-part flask with cheek same depth as the rim, ram up 
the outside, joint, and then ram the cope. When this is 
rolled over and the inside block taken out, the inside must 
be rammed a little higher than the rim and a parting made 
all over. The nowel in this instance must be barred as a 
cope, to suit the form of parting. Let the nowel be 
rammed and lifted off ; the rim is now to be drawn out 
and the nowel put back, and after securing the three parts 




(Fig. 255. 



together, roll all back again into position. The top part 
can now be lifted off, and there being no rim in the mould, 
a good lift is absolutely certain. Pulleys up to the size 
mentioned can be made very rapidly this way. By consult- 
ing Fig. 255 the reader will see the complete operation at a 
glance. The bottom cope or nowel has been replaced after 
the rim was taken out. The reason for making parting A 
with a rise is to help keep the core in place when it is rolled 
back. A few lifters laid in the core (as shown at B) on the 
bottom side will prevent any of the mould from falling 
away when it is being turned back. 

At Fig. 25G I have shown a method of making pulleys 
from patterns which have the arms either cast with or 
secured to the rim. The lifting-plates in this case are used 



290 



THE IRON-FOUNDER. 



separate, and must be made with a sharp edge to fit against 
the rim, in order to insure a good lift, as seen at A. The 
lifting-irons must be long enough t© stand through the 
bars of cope, as at B, and the best way of connecting them 
with the plates is to have the hole in the plate a little 
smaller than the iron, so that a shoulder can be forged on, 
to prevent them slipping through. In riveting the button 
underneath, leave it slack, so that the iron can be turned 
easily iu the hole. This allows of its being twisted round 
to clear the bars of the cope. Pulleys can be made very 




■rr.zrn- 



■' <,, , ,,j- 



rr,~~7T- 



Fig. 256. 



readily from these patterns when the flasks and lifting- 
plates are in good order. The handiest way of working 
them is to ram the inside first, make parting at arms, 
and bed down the plates, after which ram up to the top 
of the inside and loosen the pattern all round before the 
outside is rammed. After the cope is rammed the plates 
can be quickly secured to the cope by wedging under 
the irons put through the eyes of the lifting-irons. The 
figure shows an iron flask with long pins, but if wood flasks 
are used, a little extra care in fitting on good copes will be 
necessary. 

The pattern shown in the flask is 30 inches diameter and 
8 inches deep, but the casting required is to be 12 inches 



PULLEYS, AND HOW TO MAKE THEM. 291 

deep. Now, as this is not a loose rim, another method 
must be adopted to deepen the rim and have the arms in 
the centre when cast. In order to do this one half of the 
difference must be added to the bottom and the other to 
the top. The way to do this is shown in the figure. The 
pattern has been drawn two inches from the bottom at C, 
and the outside parting made two inches above the pattern 
at D, where a little draught has been given to the joint to 
save dragging up the parting. When the cope has been 
lifted oh* the pattern must be placed on the top part of 
mould and a strickle passed round under the edge to scrape 
out the sand level with the inside. This will insure a per- 
fectly even thickness all around, which could hardly be the 
case if the pattern was not used for a guide, as directed. 
If the flasks for this class of work are made after the man- 
ner shown in this figure it becomes an easy matter to part 
the mould at the bottom, and this enables the moulder to 
finish his work satisfactorily. 

Pulley patterns which are standard and not more than 
two feet diameter, nor any deeper than six inches, are best 
made as shown at Figs. 248 and 249. I prefer the one at 
Fig. 248, for the reason that both halves are equally strong 
and less apt to get broken. Another advantage is that there 
is less trouble in parting the arms. If good headway is to 
be made with this class of pulleys, light iron flasks are in- 
dispensable. 

PULLEY MOULDING FKOM SWEEPS AND CORES. 

Sometimes a pulley is ordered for which there is no pat- 
tern. When this occurs a very simple plan can be adopted 
to overcome the difficulty. 

Let us suppose the pulley to be of the same dimensions 
as the one shown at Fig. 250, 6 feet diameter, 12 inches 
deep. Figs. 257, 258, and 259 wills how the different stages 
of such a job with very little explanation. 



292 



THE IRON-FOUNDER. 



After a suitable hole has been dug in the floor in which 
to mould the pulley, set in two straight-edges and strike 
off a true bed, in the centre of which ram up a good stout 
steady pin, after the manner shown at A, Fig. 257. (It is 
supposed there is no spindle or centre where this pulley is 
being made.) A plate, B, is now bedded down one inch 
below the surface, as at C, and the joint continued to the 
surface of mould as at D. Although this plate is shown 
well up to the centre, it really does not require to come 
any further than the point where the cores meet each 
each other in the hub, thereby saving weight. The sur- 







F 

^1 



• v 



Fig. 257. 



face over the plate is now to be swept off level with the 
outside and a line struck to the inside diameter of rim, to 
be divided into six, and each division to be drawn to the 
centre. Fig. 258 shows the cores made in halves joined to- 
gether and set into position; it will be observed that these 
cores, when together, are the exact depth of the rim. All 
that is required now is to set sweep A, Fig. 258, and ram in 
between the cores; spaces B, C, and D are shown as filled 
in, and the sweep moved round to the next space. Before 
proceeding to ram in the spaces the cores can be clamped 
together as seen at E, Fig. 258, as many being used as are 
thought requisite ; observe that provision is made for run- 
ning in the hub 3 and that the end of cores form print for 
centre core. After this operation is complete hitch on to 



PULLEYS, AND HOW TO MAKE THEM. 



293 



the handles shown, and lift the whole thing out of the 
mould, taking care to steady it out of the feet shown at 
E, Fig. 257. 

Just here I will explain why I lift out the inside. It is 
customary, in making pulleys from cores and sweeps, to 
have segment cores to make up the outside, setting them 
to line and ramming behind them after they are all in po- 
sition, but I have yet to see the casting made after this 
manner that was true, or anything near it; therefore, I 
think that the little extra labor entailed in lifting out the 




Fig. 258. 

inside is more than compensated for if we gain a correct 
outside by the operation. 

Fig. 259 is a view of the bed under the plate, with parting 
all round and the bottom surface on which the sweep rests. 
This sweep is the one used for the inside, with the braces 
reversed and continued to the centre-pin, which it is sup- 
posed to fit accurately. The view shows the sweep as 
having been started at A and the upper side rammed as 
far as B. I have shown the centre pin as standing up 
above the bed on which the lifting plate rested. It will be 
seen that in attaching the continuation of the braces, they 



294 



THE mON-FOUNDEU. 



are shouldered together at C; this allows of their easy 
separation before the sweep is removed, if it should be 
thought desirable to do so ; if the pulley was round on the 
face then it would be requisite to do so. To make a flange 
pulley by this method have a segment or flange for top and 
bottom, bed in the top as you go along, the bottom one to 
be set against the sweep and withdrawn each move that is 
made. 

When the outside is rammed and finished it will take but 




Fig. 259. 



a short time to complete the job. After the centre has 
been taken out and the hole made good, place back the 
inside and cover the rim with cores, as shown at F, Fig. 257. 
The centre core is seen in place at G,Y\g. 257; but it must 
be remembered that the plug A is supposed to be out when 
the plate goes back, otherwise this figure may be taken as 
a sectional elevation of the mould when closed, cut through 
the centre of arm-core on one side and through the space 
on the other, exposing handle H. 



PULLEYS, AND HOW TO MAKE THEM. 



295 



TO SPLIT A PULLEY. 

This is generally considered an unpleasant thing to do, 
but I think that a considerable amount of the annoyance 
is self-inflicted. Ordinarily too little care is taken in the 
preparation needed to insure success in splitting a pulley 
or wheel. Some of the methods adhered to have been 
handed down to us by our grandfathers, and we stupidly 
insist on their use, good or bad. Very often it occurs that 
a split pulley is wanted in a hurry, and along with the pat- 
tern comes the splitting-plates, cut out of plate iron perhaps 
not more than -fa inch thick. Suppose the pulley to be six 




Fig. 260. 



feet diameter, 12 inches deep, with a very heavy hub, such 
as shown at Fig* 260 (which is a sketch of the inside of pat- 
tern with splitting-lugs attached). In some foundries all 
that is considered necessary is to heat the plates and paint 
them with gas tar, but it invariably happens that when 
there is a considerable body of metal that the tar burns 
away, and the plates are fast in places on both sides, 
making it difficult to separate the halves; in fact, it is no 
uncommon occurrence to break the casting somewhere else 
in the effort used to split it. Such a method as this ought 



296 THE IRON-FOVNDER. 

to be abandoned at once. Again, at other places the split- 
ting-plates are treated to a thin coat of fine loam, and if 
the loam could be kept on them the plan would not be 
without some merit. But when spikes are thrust down 
each side to secure them, it is barely possible to keep them 
in good trim. However much success may attend the use 
of plates prepared this way, they cannot in any case be 
used for packing when the pulley is bolted together, being 
slack the amount of loam used to cover them. Some think 
oil will do, and others maintain that a coat of blacking will 
answer the purpose; but I need not waste words to prove 
the inadequacy of such methods to insure a good job. 

As before stated, Fig. 260 shows the inside of a pulley 
pattern with the splitting-lugs attached. The prints seen 
on the lugs are to receive the splitting-plates. Let pat- 
terns be made for these plates f inch thick, with front edge 
feathered. The feather edge must set into the rim a little, 
and as far back from the centre core as will permit of an 
easy split. 

In moulding these plates use such sand as will allow the 
hot iron to eat into it, so that the skin of the metal will not 
be exposed ; when cast, rub off the loose sand and spread 
a coat of very thin glue all over the surface, over which a 
little fine burnt sand can be dusted. When dried the sur- 
face will be very hard. A thin coat of black-lead, made 
with glue water, can now be brushed over them and again 
dried. They are now ready for use, and will stand any 
amount of handling. This method insures a clean split 
every time, and no trouble from blow-holes, from the fact 
that the material with which they are covered emits little 
if any gas when the molten iron comes against it. 



SQUARE AND^ RECTANGULAR COLUMNS. 297 



TO MAKE SQUARE AND RECTANGULAR 
COLUMNS. 

It would surprise many of our first-class machinery 
moulders (who affect to despise the so-called housework 
shops) if they were to step inside one of the many 
foundries which make a specialty of architectural work, 
and see the admirable methods they have for pushing out 
work in short order. True, a great amount of the work 
done in these shops is of a very plain sort, requiring very 
little skill but any amount of muscle to accomplish; yet 
it must be conceded that some of the castings require men 
of superior ability to make them successfully. 

We need only examine critically some of our large 
public buildings which have their fronts mainly of cast- 
iron, to be convinced that something more than ordinary 
skill was needed to mould the massive columns and en- 
tablatures of which the structure is composed. 

The moulding of what are called square columns has 
always been considered a leading job in a housework shop, 
and the man who has uniform success in their manu- 
facture commands good wages. A common method of 
moulding these castings is to ram the core (in green sand) 
on an arbor or core-iron made for the purpose; this arbor 
is simply a beam long enough to reach through each end, 
with bars cast or bolted along each side to support the 
sand. The core-box is usually a smooth board bedded 
alongsido the mould, with loose sides clamped firmly to- 
gether to the required width. When the core has been 
made in this, the sides are taken off, and then it can be 
lifted off the board and lowered into the mould. This is 
a rather delicate operation, and needs care to have it 



£98 



THE IRON-EOVKDER. 



exactly in the centre, otherwise the casting is sure to draw 
over on the thick side. To obviate this, studs have in 
some instances to be used to press the core over in the 
middle after the ends are secured in the centre. 

Another method is to make the core in dry sand; but as 
this is only a makeshift at best, I will dismiss it at once, 
and proceed to explain the method which seems to me the 
surest as well as the most simple way of making square 
and rectangular columns, or any other casting similar in 
form; for I am persuaded that a considerable saving might 




Fig. 261. 

be effected in many of our machine-shops by adopting 
some ready mode of working with green-sand cores. 

First, consider the pattern for a column 18 inches square 
— the one I have chosen for illustration being of such 
dimensions. The drawings are made isometrically and to 
scale, and the strictest attention has been paid to propor- 
tion throughout : by so doing I have been able to show 
all the details in actual position. Fig. 261 is a view of one 
end of the pattern: it is seen to be a plain block, and 
must be made long enough to meet all requirements; it 
is simply four stout boards well secured to blocks at short 
intervals along the inside; strong screw-plates must be let 
in on the under side and holes bored in the top, through 



SQUARE AND RECTANGULAR COLUMNS. 299 

which to let down the screw for drawing out the pattern, 
as seen at A. The arrangement for stopping-ofl: to the 
required length is simple. B and C are blocks which set 
against stops D and E. These stops are set back at a dis- 
tance from F sufficient to allow the front face of blocks B 
and C being on a line with the mark F, such mark being 
the supposed length of the column required. When these 
blocks are drawn out they leave a true face against which 
to set the stopping-off cores. These cores are seen in posi- 
tion, and made good behind, at A and B, Fig. 262. The 
cores are about \\ inches thick. The one at A has the 
running gates on its inner edge. An upright runner 
about If inches square is set against the gates before ram- 
ming behind, to be connected with the main runner at 
the finish. 

So much for the pattern. Let us now turn our atten- 
tion to the mould, and begin by discarding the old method 
of bedding in the floor, for another which will not only 
give better results as to quality of work done, but quantity 
also. As before stated, the column chosen for the purpose 
of illustration is 18 inches square. By referring to Fig. 263 
it will be seen that top and bottom flasks are used, pre- 
pared with hinges for the cope to turn in. These hinges 
serve a good purpose in this case, since, there being no 
necessity to lift the cope away to finish, you merely hitch 
on to the staple (not shown) in front, throw the cope back 
at a convenient angle for finishing, and prop up behind, 
leaving it resting in the hinges until ready for closing. 

It must be plain to any one that there is a considerable 
saving of both time and room by this method of handling 
the cope. 

The bottom flask is made up of loose sides and ends of 
the needed depth, held together by cross-bars bolted about 
every 2 feet along its length. As shown, it stands about 6 
inches above the floor. This keeps the hinges and flange 



300 



THE IRON-FOUNDER. 



clear, and gives greater freedom to the moulder whilst 
working at the job. By cutting out a gap in the side of 
the view I am enabled to give a sectional illustration of 
the whole job at that particular spot. The cross-bar is 
seen with broken line up the sides, which indicates the 
flanges for bolting together. The broken line at the 




Fig. 262. 

bottom of the bar indicates a flange 4 inches wide, which 
answers the double purpose of stiffening the bar and 
supplying a surface to resist the thrust when the pressure 
is on the mould. 

The box must be made to take in the longest columns, 
as short ones can be moulded in it as read ily as in a shorter 
one. As there are to be no core-prints on the pattern, it 
is only required to level a bed to the proper depth on 
which to lay the pattern, then ram up the sides and cope 
in the regular way, taking care to place the runners G and 



SQUARE AND RECTANGULAR COLUMNS, 301 

D, Fig. 263, convenient for connecting with those behind 
the cores previously spoken of. 

The pattern or block being drawn, and the mould 
finished, we will proceed to make the core, which will be 
rammed in the mould with very little trouble. Figs. 262 
and 264 are views of the mould at different stages of the 
operation of moulding the column. It is supposed that 
all of the front side has been taken away, thus revealing 
the joint, side and bottom surfaces, with their several 
details, to be explained as we proceed. At Fig. 264 I have 
shown one of the loose patterns for the sides; it rests on 
the bottom of the mould. These patterns must be made 
of good and well-seasoned lumber, otherwise they will 
soon warp out of shape. They are to be the thickness of 
the casting required, with some draught allowed for easy 
drawing. The straps shown are of wrought-iron, and are 
sunk flush with the pattern. A toe is turned on the 
bottom, which grips the pattern, and they must be well 
secured with screws as shown. It will be seen at A, Fig. 
264, that the stopping-off block has been taken out and the 
core previously spoken of set against the end of the 
pattern; but as it is not expected to cut these patterns to 
the length of column every time, the blocks at the opposite 
end remain where they are until the patterns have been 
taken out. The opeuing cores marked CDEFG, Fig. 262, 
are now to be set in their places, and the ones H and / 
must be set exactly in line with the front face of the blocks. 
All these cores are to be the thickness of the column on 
that side, and when in their places are to be covered with 
other cores made in lengths suitable for easy handling, 
and the width of the space between the side patterns. I 
have shown these cores in position from end to end in Fig. 
264. If they are carefully made and fitted snugly together 
there will be no fear of any sand working its way down 
into the mould. After spreading a little sand all along 



302 



THE IRON FOUNDER. 



the cores, set down the beam or arbor, making sure that 
it rests solid on them all. I have shown a portion of this 
arbor in position at Fig. 264; it is simply abeam cast on its 
flat, in open sand, and can be used for all widths over 8 
inches. When smaller than this it is safer to use a 
wrought-iron beam with holes drilled along its length. 
The plate being thin, it allows of more sand round the 




Fig. 263. 

arbor, and is consequently safer. Fig. 265 will explain what 
I mean. If the reader will look at the cross-section of 
Fig. 263 he will see the disposition made of the core-arbor: 
the figure is purposely cut across the mould just where 
the stud is used for holding down the arbor; the stud is 
seen standing through the cope and resting on a loose 
packing, which is placed on the arbor a little below the 
surface of the core, to give extra thickness at that place. 
The best material for making the core is the heap or 



SQUARE AND RECTANGULAR COLUMNS. 303 

floor sand, not over-moist, but well mixed, and shook 
through a coarse riddle; but should the heap be very 
rotten on account of a preponderance of burnt sand, then 
a little new may be well mixed through it. Avoid adding 
sea-coal by all means, as it only creates gas, and there is 
quite sufficient for this purpose in the old sand which is 
used. I might add that it is best to face the runner end 




Fig. 264. 



for a short distance with the regular facing-sand mixture, 
to prevent the gates from cutting the core at that spot. 

To vent the core I have shown a f-inch rod laid on each 
side of the arbor, about two thirds of the distance from 
the bottom; when the ramming has reached within J inch 
from the top, vent in the direction of the rods, as shown 
in Fig. 3. These long rods must be drawn before the 
side patterns are- taken out and shorter ones pushed in at 



304 THE IRON-FOUNDER. 

the ends, to be withdrawn after the cope is on and the 
ends secured. One of these vents is seen at E, Fig. 263. 
In ramming cores of this kind it is always best to put in 
a little at a time, in order to pack it solid without being 
uunecessarily hard. 

All that remains to be done after the patterns are taken 
out is to set in the stop-off cores A, Fig. 262, with the 
upright runners, and connect with the cope runners, as 
previously directed. 

I have shown in Fig. 263 a device for securing the arbor 
A. It projects through the ends of the flask, and is 
wedged under the cope at B; but provision must be made 
for holding it down in the middle also. It will be seen at 
F that a clamp is cast in the box-bar, also in the 
next bar to it; but as this one has been taken 
away to admit of this view, it cannot be seen. 
The packing on the arbor must be placed so that 



■■'•■■/ 



Fig. 265. ^ ie g ^ uc | can ^ e \ e ^ c ] own on j^ after the cope 
is on. A flat bar can be then pushed through the slot, 
which must rest on the stud, and a wedge at one or 
both ends secures it. 

The column we have been considering is supposed to be 
a plain one on all its sides, and if panels or mouldings are 
added only on the top side, it makes very little difference 
to the moulding of the column. But often these em- 
bellishments are cast on one or both of the sides as well, 
as seen at Fig. 262. When this is the case, the best method 
of moulding such is as I suggest in the article on 
Hinged Flasks. But if a superior class of work is not 
desired, draw out the patterns and finish the mould, then 
set against the side strips of iron one-eighth or three- 
sixteenths thick, 6 inches wide and the full depth of the 
mould, from 9 to 12 inches apart, against which the pat- 
terns for the sides will be set (of course they will require 
to be as much thinner as is the thickness of the strips 



TO MOULD BEVEL-WHEELS. 305 

used). The object of this is to prevent the patterns from 
rubbing against the finished mould whilst drawing them 
out. 

By having iron strips, all the trouble from warping is 
obviated ; if care is taken to have enough of them to pre- 
vent the ramming from pressing too hard against the 
mould, and thus leaving their impression, a very fair cast- 
ing can be made this way. 

By the adoption of this method much time is saved, and 
risk reduced to a minimum ; also, the core being rammed 
in its place insures an absolutely even thickness, in conse- 
quence of which the result is a straight casting every time. 



TO MOULD BEVEL-WHEELS WITHOUT A EULL 

PATTERN. 

The spindle and centre can be used to great advantage 
in the production of bevel-wheels, but it requires more 
than ordinary care on the part of both pattern-maker and 
moulder to make the plan a success. But if such care be 
exercised there is nothing to prevent as good work being 
made this way as can be got from the whole pattern. 

I propose to show three methods of moulding a bevel- 
wheel by the aid of the spindle, each of which has claims 
for precedence, according to the form of wheel desired. To 
illustrate this article I have chosen an ordinary coarse- 
pitched wheel, about three feet in diameter, the plan and 
elevation of which is seen at Figs. 266 and 267. I do not 
purpose going into all the primary instructions for moulding 
such a wheel, as I take it for granted that any moulder 
who may be entrusted with this class of work will know 



306 



THE IRON-FOUNDER. 



what preparations are needed to insure a good casting ; 
suffice it to say, that the centre, when set down in the 
floor, must be low enough to allow of the point of tooth 
marked A, Fig. 267, coming level with the floor of the shop. 
Care is needed in setting down the centre, as the spindle 
must be absolutely plumb before a start is made. I would 
also remind the moulder of the advisability of putting in a 
good cinder-bed (the use of which will be seen presently). 

Fig. 266. 





Fig. 267. 



As I intend these instructions to serve for castings other 
than wheels, I shall be particular to give the reasons "why," 
in all cases where it will be advantageous to do so. It has 
been suggested that A, Fig. 267, is the starting-point or 
joint ; all above this point must come into the cope, and, 
necessarily, all below it will be in the floor. I speak now 
of the outer surfaces : the form of the wheel will determine 
what disposition we shall make of the inner surface, or arm- 
cores, — whether Ave shall lift them away on plates, use dry- 



TO MOULD BEVEL-WHEELS. 307 

sand cores, or carry them in the cope. To better under- 
stand the several modes of procedure we will make our 
wheel by all the methods, beginning with the first men- 
tioned, viz., lifting them away on plates. Fig. 3 will ex- 
plain the matter. Point A corresponds with A, Fig. 2, 
and, as before stated, is the joint. B is a sweep attached 
to the spindle, and is intended to strike the exact form of 
the back of wheel; its edge is made to correspond with 
the top face of elevation, Fig. 2. This bed must be made 
hard and true, and in order to insure accuracy let all the 
sweeps be made with the top edge C at exact right angles 
to the spindle, so that a square resting thereon, and brought 
up to the spindle, will test their correctness. 

You now have a true model of the back of the wheel, 
which must be prepared for parting and the cope rammed 
over it. An important item is to stake the box well before 
lifting it away, and take such pains as will preserve them 
and the joint from injury, while the rest of the mould is 
being made. The portion of mould above A has been ob- 
tained by striking a model and taking its impression as you 
would from a pattern ; but the position below A will be 
obtained direct from the sweep D. The lower edge of this 
sweep corresponds with all the surfaces below the point A. 
The broken lines seen on this figure represent a section of 
the wheel cut across the centre, and will aid the under- 
standing if carefully examined. I need not say that much 
precaution is needed in the preparation of this part of the 
mould, for accuracy as well as solidity. 

In making this sweep it is well to have the surface E 
(which forms the bed for the teeth) made a little slack; 
this admits of the segment, with which the teeth are to be 
formed, being firmly set down in place. When the mould 
is swept, mark off the arms and set on the core-box ; also 
put back sweep B and bring it into position at joint A. 
This will not only test the core-box, but will sweep off the 



308 



THE IRON-FOUNDER. 



top of the cores exact with the impression taken in the 
cope. At F, Fig. 268, I have shown the lifting-plate in 
position. By referring to Fig. 266, at A and B, it will be 
seen that quite a large plate can be used in this case, thus 
enabling the moulder to make a safe core. A method for 
securing these cores is shown in article " Moulding Bevel 
and Mitre Wheels." 

When the wheel is large in diameter and very deep, this 



Fig. 268. 







Fig. 269. 

plan is the best, as the cores fit the places from whence 
they were taken with absolute certainty — something which 
cannot be said for dry-sand cores in hardly any case. It 
must be remembered, also, that there is no shipping of 
cores in and out of the oven. Should this wheel be made 
with dry-sand cores, the only deviation from the instruc- 
tions given would be that, as soon as the bottom part of the 



TO MOULD BEVEL-WEEELS. 309 

mould was swept, the teeth could be proceeded with at 
once, and the cores placed to thickness after the mould was 
finished. In setting in dry-sand cores it is well to have 
sweep B, Fig. 268, in position, so that they can be proved 
for depth, etc. 

To carry the cores in the cope, it will be necessary to 
change the cope-sweep, and, instead of a core-box to form 
the arms and hub, these must be made as patterns, in the 
readiest way that suggests itself to the pattern-maker. 
Fig. 269 will explain this method, as in Fig. 268 the broken 
lines show the lower surfaces of the mould; the point A 
is still the joint, but it will be observed that the bottom 
edge of sweep B follows the line of thickness down the rim 
and along the arm. When this has been swept out, the 
hub and arm patterns can be set in position, as shown at 
G and D, Fig. 269. The ramming of this cope will not be 
as simple as in the former case, on account of the cores 
requiring to be secured to the cope by gaggers and chucks, 
or grates bedded on the bottom and bolted up before the 
cope is lifted. When lifted off, the mould can be pro- 
ceeded with as directed for Fig. 268. In this case cores the 
thickness of the web E, Fig. 269, and in the form of spaces 
A and B, Fig. 271, must be set into place after the mould 
is finished. For all shallow wheels, large or small, this 
plan is the best. 

We now come to the all-important part of wheel-mould- 
ing, to wit, the teeth ; and before entering on a description 
of the actual working of the methods herein suggested, it 
will be well to mention some of the evils we are accustomed 
to meet with in this line of work, such as swelled teeth, 
scabbed teeth, and wheels which evidence carelessness on 
the part of either pattern-maker or moulder, or both, from 
the fact of there being narrow and wide teeth all round 
the wheel. To make good sound teeth, sand must be used 
on which reliance can be placed — something which has 



310 



THE mON-FOUNDEB. 



stood the test. When satisfied on this point, be sure to 
have it thoroughly mixed with the requisite quantity of 
sea-coal, and not over damp. Before commencing to ram 
a tooth, thrust a vent-rod through the middle of the space 
down into the cinder-bed below ; ram a little at a time, 
firmly, but not too rashly, with a rammer made of wood; 
the bottom and all along the edge require special attention, 
otherwise soft places will be found. It is then that the 




Fig. 270. 



work of destruction begins if the tools are resorted to. 
Better destroy the tooth and make it over again, than to 
waste time in finishing and have bad teeth after all. By 
ramming the tooth with the vent-rod in place you are sure 
that all sides are equally benefited ; the wire can be with- 
drawn when the top is reached, and the hole plugged. 
This relieves all anxiety about the iron entering the vent 
if there should be any fin or clearance when the cope comes 
on. To secure correctness in spacing, take the time neces- 
sary to do it right. If the segment should happen a little 
under or over, don't imagine that you can bring it all right 



TO MOULD BEVEL WHEELS. 311 

by making a little allowance either way as you go round, only 
to find yourself mistaken at the last move, and, rather than 
destroy what is done, shave off a little, or divide the dif- 
ference, as the case may be ; but try it again until it is 
right. 

Fig. 270 is an isometrical view of the mould when swept 
as directed. The spindle is 3 inches in diameter, turned 
all its length. The arm is bored to fit snugly, and planed 
along the top side to a right angle with the bore. It is 
made to run loose on the spindle, and rests on a collar held 
in place by a set-screw. Instead of securing the segment 
to the arm proper, I have shown an attachment (which can 
be adjusted to the segment by the pattern-maker), the top 
inner surface of which is planed, and, as is seen, rests on 
the trued surface of the arm. The planed surfaces allow 
of an easy adjustment of the segment, without fear of alter- 
ing the angle to which it was originally set. This arrange- 
ment admits of a set-screw being fitted on the top, by 
which means the segment can be lifted clear of the bed 
(when it is being tried around for the number of teeth) 
much quicker and without help. 

The bracket, seen on the back of the segment, not only 
serves to secure it to the arm, but must be planed so that, 
when it is correct to the spirit-level, the face of the tooth 
will be at the angle required. When the segment is set 
correctly, put a bolt through the slot shown and screw fast, 
then lower the whole down into place and mark opposite 
the lines on centre of teeth all round to the starting-point. 
Should it be found to come a little under or over the num- 
ber of teeth required, increase or decrease the diameter to 
suit the case, but be sure you are correct before commenc- 
ing to ram the teeth, and take care to be exactly opposite 
the mark each move. The view shows three teeth rammed 
and the segment lifted clear of the last tooth, but it is not 
intended that the collar on which the arm rests shall be 



312 TEE IRON-FOUNDER 

disturbed, after it is once set, until all the teeth are made. 
When the teeth are finished take a segment or half-circle 
which fits the spindle and extends to the diameter of the 
core, and bed it round the spindle to form a seating in 
which to rest the core. Should a washer be required on 
the face or bottom side, similar to the one shown on the 
top, it can be done the same way. If proper care has been 
exercised on all the details of this job, it will be found, 
when closing the mould, that everything will find its place 
as surely as would have been the case if a full pattern had 
been used. 



MOULDING BEVEL AND MITRE WHEELS. 

Many moulders consider the making of a bevel-wheel a 
simple job, but if they were made aware of the amount of 
time it takes to chip and trim the teeth, as also to correct 
other imperfections in the casting when made by the 
methods commonly in vogue, there is not the least doubt 
in my mind but that they would be led to say that, after 
all, it is not so easy and simple to make a good bevel- 
wheel. 

No matter how popular the machine-made wheel may be, 
there will always be a great demand for wheels made from 
patterns when it is clear to the manufacturer that such 
wheels are needed often. This being admitted, it is im- 
portant that the best method of moulding be adopted to 
secure a good casting, and at the same time inflict the least 
amount of damage to the pattern. As is well known, there 
are many ways of making a wheel from the pattern, some 
of which it may profit us to examine into. At the right of 
Fig. 271, marked A, is shown a very common method of 



MOULDING BEVEL AND MITRE WHEELS. 313 



moulding such a wheel. The drawing represents a 6-foot 
bevel-wheel turned over in the bottom flask, and the top 
part rammed. It will be seen that wood-chucks are driven 
between the bars of the cope, down in between the arms, 
and lifters or gaggers distributed over the surface to help 
bring up the sand. Now it must be plain to any one that 

Fig. 271. 




[ 



"IffiSEfT 



Fig. 272. 

mischief must ensue either to mould or pattern, or both, 
when the separation takes place. If the pattern is held 
down to secure good teeth, then the arms suffer, for as a 
natural consequence much of the sand is dragged off the 
face of the mould which must be afterwards secured and 
made as good as the skill of the moulder can make it; but 
we know that although considerable time may be spent in 



314 THE IROfcFOUNDER. 

the mending, it is never as well done as it ought to be. 
In some foundries they attempt to remedy this evil by 
making the arms loose, and lifting them away with the 
cope, drawing them out when the box is turned over. And 
right here we have the cause of some of the extra labor in 
the machine-shop, for we all know that a pattern made 
with loose arms is unreliable. All wheel patterns should 
be made with the arms well secured to the rim. Again, at 
other foundries they partially save the arms at the expense 
of the teeth, by lifting the pattern with the cope, securing 
it with screws, and jarring it as it lifts from the teeth. 
But I need not say that it would require a much more 
elaborate arrangement than four wood stakes against the 
uneven sides of a box, and the uncertain guidance of a 
man at each stake or pin, to save the teeth from being dis- 
turbed. Usually, if the teeth are not actually pushed over, 
but more or less fractured, all that is considered necessary 
is to place the pattern back and go round with a hammer 
or mallet, and drive the pattern well down on its bed. It 
would certainly be ridiculous to expect a true wheel after 
such treatment of the mould, to say nothing of the damage 
done the pattern by such pounding. If, as is often the 
case, the teeth must be made over again, it is needless to 
say we may look out for chipping and trimming with a 
vengeance. 

The method which secures the best results, both as to 
pattern and casting, is the one shown at B, Fig. 271 and 
Fig. 272. The joint of the flask is so arranged as to come 
level with the points of the teeth, the bars in the upper 
half being hollowed to fit the back of the wheel. A stout 
face-board is needed to correspond with pattern and flask, 
and after the bottom half is turned over, plates (such as 
shown in section at B, Fig. 271, and in plan at A, Fig. 272) 
are bedded down in their places. The joint being made 
for parting all round, all that is needed is to ram the cores, 



SPUR-WHEEL MOULDING. 315 

Securing them well with irons, after the manner shown in 
the drawing. Should it be considered necessary, irons of 
the requisite strength and shape may be cast in the plate 
to carry the back of core at B, Fig. 272; but where the plates 
are in constant use, these get broken off, and recourse must 
be had to the loose irons. 

I think the plan Fig. 272, aided by section Fig. 271, will 
sufficiently explain the method of binding the cores together. 
When these are all well rammed and the cope lifted, they 
can be all lifted clean from the pattern and placed down on 
the three feet as shown, and the pattern taken out. It will 
be found that, if ordinary care has been taken in the opera- 
tion, there remains little to do but close the mould as 
the pattern left it, exact, — a very desirable thing in any 
job. If a good loosening-plate be bolted through the hub 
of the wheel, there will be no necessity to strike the pat- 
tern throughout the whole process of moulding, so that the 
pattern at the finish must be as good as when it was 
placed on the face-board. Last but not least in the list of 
advantages secured by adopting this method is, that a 
wheel can be made very much quicker. 



SPUR-WHEEL MOULDING FROM A SEGMENT 
AND SPINDLE. 

No foundry should be without good facilities for mould- 
ing circular castings with sweeps; for if the necessary rig 
were always on hand numerous methods would suggest 
themselves to the founder, whereby much would be saved 
both in time and lumber in the making of many such cast- 
ings. 



316 



THE IRON-FOUNDER 



Much loss is suffered by some firms because of the sup- 
posed cost of preparing the spindle and its adjuncts for 
this class of work, but I am persuaded that this supposition 
is purely imaginary, as I shall attempt to show. 

All that is needed to secure good work by this method is 
to have the spindle of sufficient strength to support the 
sweep, and resist the thrust whilst it is being forced 
round. 

Fig. 273 is a plan of the centre required, and Fig. 274 is a 




\ ■•■; ■;) 



) 



Fig. 273. 



Fig. 274. 



sectional elevation of the same with the spindle set in; its 
dimensions are as follows: Arms, 2 feet radius, 9 inches 
wide, 1 inch thick all through. The spindle shown is 2J- 
inches diameter, tapered to 1J inches along 13 inches of 
its length at one end, so that, the hub in the centre being 
12 inches deep, 1 inch of the spiudle will protrude. Have 
the spindle no longer than is absolutely necessary to allow 
of 9 inches below the casting to top of centre, and as much 
above the mould as will allow of the sweep being firmly 
attached, as shown at Fig. 275. 

Let the spindle be turned and tapered in the lathe, and 
after moulding the centre (in open sand) set it on end in 
the hub, pressing it down about 1 inch, taking care not to 



SPUR-WHEEL MOULDING. 



317 



have the centre reach above the taper when cast. To insure 
an easy withdrawal of the spindle, have a little tallow 
melted thin, with which to cover the taper end ; over this 
sprinkle a little fine parting-sand, and be careful when pour- 
ing the centre not to direct the stream of iron against it. 
Another important feature is to have the spindle at right 
angles with the centre. 

By referring to Fig. 275 it will be seen that two kinds of 




Fig. 275. 



arms are shown for securing the sweep. The one shown 
at A will doubtless recommend itself to most moulders on 
account of there being no machine work needed in its con- 
struction. The one at B needs boring and also fitting with 
a set-screw: it is less troublesome to set, but it must be 
remembered that it can only be placed on and taken off by 
passing over the top of the spindle, whilst the one at A can 
be released on any part of it by simply knocking out the 



318 THE IRON-FOUNDER. 

key. Fig. 276 shows a bushing or collar to be screwed fast 
to the spindle when it is thought best to turn the arms 
loose on the spindle, as is sometimes the case. 

The spur-wheel illustrated in this article is about 6 feet 
in diameter, 12 inches deep, 8 inches centre-core, and hub 
14 inches deep, 4 inches thick; the arms have a centre-web 
and come flush with the rim, as shown in elevation on right 
hand half of Fig. 277. For such a wheel the centre must be 
sunk 2 feet below the floor, and to set it securely let the 
end of each arm rest on an iron block or weight firmly 
bedded down. This done, a hard bed is made level with 




Fig. 276. 

the floor and swept off, as seen at Fig. 275. The sweep and 
arms are now removed and a washer pattern, same diameter 
as the hub, and as thick as the distance the hub extends 
past the face (which in this case is 1 inch) is slipped over 
the spindle; the hole in centre of washer being made to fit 
the same, to insure a correct match with the cores. The 
cope is now rammed over the surface and staked at the 
corners; these stakes must be protected during the process 
of moulding the wheel, so that the cope when closed will 
be sure to rest in its original position. After the cope is 
lifted off and finished, a hole of the requisite dimensions 
must be dug and the washer again slipped over the spindle, 
round edge downwards, and bedded correct to depth. This 
can be accomplished either by marks made on the spindle, 
or from two points set in the joint to the cope-sweep, on 
which a straight-edge can rest. 



SPUR-WHEEL MOULDING. 



319 



The bottom bed can now be swept off similarly to the top, 
only that more care is needed to have the parts which form 
the casting as true as possible. I am aware that in ordinary 
practice all that is now required is to place the dry-sand 
teeth-cores in position, and set in the arm-cores, also made 
of dry sand; but a large experience in this class of work 
has convinced me that it is impossible to make a true spur- 
wheel by this method: for, however careful we may be to 
avoid it, the ugly fact still remains that no two cores are 
alike; consequently, the wheel must be untrue throughout 
its whole circumference, and is therefore untrustworthy. 
Spur-wheels thus made usually have short lives, and such 
as do not crash during the first few revolutions are broken 




piecemeal, the faulty teeth snapping off from time to time, 
to be replaced by wrought-iron ones at considerable cost. 

Fig. 278 will explain a method which obviates the difficul- 
ties spoken of. The core-box A for the arms is made so 
that the outside shall correspond with the thickness of the 
rim; on this the teeth must be secured, and the best way 
to effect this is to dovetail them on, so that they can be 
removed when not in use. After laying out the arms bed 
down lifting-plates shown in plan at B, Fig. 278, and in 
section at A, Fig. 277. The pattern can now be placed over 
and the cores rammed. I have shown a core ready for lift- 
ing away at C, Fig. 278; when the cores are all out, the way 
is clear for moulding the teeth. In this drawing I have pur- 
posely left out the spindle that I might more clearly explain 



320 



THE IRON-FOUNDER. 



the arrangement for setting the teeth. The pattern sets 
back a little from the spindle, but an iron guide D is let in, 
which fits accurately and clips the spindle. This guide has 
a slot-hole in it, through which a good screw secures it to 
the pattern. By this method the pattern can be moved in 




Fig. 278. 



or out if it should be found necessary to alter the diameter. 
This, of course, will be discovered when the segment has 
been tried all round. Be sure of a well-defined mark all 
round the teeth before commencing to ram, and set the 
segment to them accurately each move that is made, and 
the result will be a comparatively true wheel. 

The drawing shows the segment as having been rammed 
once and moved around; the side of tooth is set against the 



SPUR-WHEEL MOULDING. 321 

sand at E and also to the tooth-mark at F. When the 
teeth are all rammed the spindle can do taken out and a 
piece of waste thrust in the centre hole, over which sand 
can be rammed firmly, level with the bottom of core-print. 

The advantage gained by ramming the cores on the bed 
will be appreciated when the mould is ready for closing, as 
the feet will guide them to their respective places with ab- 
solute correctness. Another advantage is that cores and 
outside, being made from the same pattern, insures an 
exactness which cannot be expected by any other method. 

Should it be required to cast a shroud over the teeth on 
the top side, cut the cope-sweep to correspond with the form 
and position of the shrouding; this will leave a sand pat- 
tern, as it were, the imperfections of which can be made good 
by finishing to a short segment pattern when the cope is 
lifted off. But should the shrouding be needed on bottom 
side as well, it will then be necessary to put back the 
bottom sweep (after the cores are all out), fitted with a 
tongue which will not only form the shrouding, but will 
also strike out clearance sufficient to allow of the segment 
being withdrawn after Jthe teeth are rammed over it, as 
shown at B, Fig. 277. 

A good method of making the segments to be used in 
forming the bottom shrouding is to halve them along their 
length so that they fit wedge form at the ends, the top 
half to have its thickest edge to the front; this of course 
allows the upper half to slide down the incline, freeing it- 
self from the teeth as soon as it is touched — a desideratum 
to be appreciated. My meaning will be seen at once by 
consulting Fig. 277 at C. 

The space at B, Fig. 277, will of course require filling np 
after the teeth are all rammed; this can be accurately done 
by using a segment made to clear the teeth when it is 
drawn out. The teeth will serve as a guide to set it by, 
and a few holes- can be bored, through which spikes can be 



322 THE IRON-FOUNDER. 

thrust to hold it in place whilst the sand is being pressed 
against it. 



SPUR-WHEELS OF DIFFERENT DEPTHS FROM 
THE SAME PATTERN. 

If a spur-wheel should be required 6 feet diameter, 16- 
inch face, and we had a pattern on hand correct in every 
particular but depth, we should very naturally look about 
for some method of moulding it from such a pattern at as 
little cost as possible for alterations; and whilst there are 
many admirable methods for increasing the depth of spur- 
wheels, I especially favor the one suggested in this article. 

Suppose our pattern to be 12 inches deep, with centre 
web fast in the arms, and suppose also that the wheel when 
cast must have the web still in the centre. We can readily 
accomplish this by building one half the difference on the 
top side of the pattern, which In this case is 2 inches, as seen 
at EFO, Fig. 279. It will not be necessary to cover the 
teeth with this addition; simply saw out a few segments 
to set on up to the inside of the rim. 

Figs. 279 and 280 will explain the way to mould from 
such a pattern. It will be seen at A in both views that the 
pattern (after being rammed up to the under side of web 
and round the outside) has been drawn up 2 inches and 
held there by firmly tucking the sand under the web. The 
ramming is then continued up to the upper side of web B, 
and also to the top of rim 0. 

After the cope is lifted off, the sand over the teeth at D 
can be taken away and the pattern again drawn up far 
enough to allow of the teeth being rammed level with the 
joint, after which the pattern can be drawn out and the 
mould finished in the regular manner. 



SPUR-WHEELS OF DIFFERENT DEPTHS. 323 

But should it be required to decrease the depth 4 inches, 
which would make our wheel 8 inches instead of 16 inches 



« 



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smmm 



© 

co 

CN 



0<'-'t 



'-".;Jv3 



Sfrj 






CN 



^ 



^,...•.•7^. 



Pq 



CO 
CN 



deep, the method shown at Figs. 281, 282, and 283 will over- 
come the difficulty. It will be seen at A that one half the 



324 THE IRON-FOUNDER. 

difference (2 inches) lias been attached to the under side of 
the web, thus making that side of the pattern correct. 
After bedding in the pattern thus prepared, make the part- 
ing inside the arms 2 inches above the web, as seen at B. 
(This is simply placing as much sand over the web as there is 
wood under it.) This is done by using a strickle made to 
rest on the top of the pattern and projecting down far 
enough to give the correct depth of sand over the web. 
The parting on the outside must be level with the top of 
pattern, as seen at C. 

After this impression has been taken in the cope, two 
other strickles are needed — one to work round the outside 
down to D (Figs. 281 and 283), which will be 4 inches deep, 
of course. The other is for the inside, and must reach 
to E (Figs. 281, 282, and 283), and will be just 4 inches 
deeper than the strickle first used for the inside. After 
this is done it will be seen that the surfaces in the cope 
corresponding to C and B will now rest upon D and E, 
the difference being the same in both instances. In other 
words, B will exactly fit at E, because the distance from 
D to E corresponds with the lift in the cope. 



A METHOD FOR MAKING IRREGULAR-SHAPED 
PIPES IN GREEN SAND. 

There is in all probability hardly a foundry in exist- 
ence that has not, in some part of its career, had more or 
less anxiety over the moulding of jobbing pipes. What is 
here meant by jobbing pipes are such as are called bends, 
elbows, tees, breeches, and all the varied forms of pipe 
needed for the trade. In some cases the anxiety arises 
from the lack of oven convenience for drying the cores; 



METHOD FOR MAKING IRREG ULAR SHAPED PIPES. 325 

whilst others again lament the cost of making the patterns 
and core-boxes, which in some instances is great, causing 




many owners of foundries to shun the business altogether. 
Strange as it may seem, it is nevertheless true, that the 
making of these pipes in the regular system is generally 



326 



THE IBON-FOUNDEB. 



distasteful to all concerned in their manufacture. The 
pattern-maker detests the frequent changes which must be 
made with the old patterns, on account of the dirt and 
nails with which they are usually covered, — these elements, 
as we all know, being deadly foes to the keen edge of his 
tools, — and the moulders almost universally say they would 
rather make anything else than pipes. To save expense, 
the plan of striking the thickness on the core, and mould- 
ing from a dry-sand or loam pattern is often resorted to; 
but, on the whole, this is a very poor substitute for the 
pattern and core-box correctly made. 




Fig. 285. 

A very excellent method is adopted in some places where 
a large number of one kind of irregular pipe is required, 
which is, to cast the halves of the casting to be made : 
these are finished up and pinned together and used for the 
pattern, the core being made in green sand along with the 
mould. But such a pattern, valuable as it is for the 
purpose for which it was made, is utterly valueless for 
anything else. 

The method herein suggested is in reality a modification 
of the one last mentioned, and fully meets the require- 
ments of all interested, inasmuch as it can be made to 
answer for any and every kind of pipe required, be it 
circle, curve, or straight length, being simply as many half- 



METHOD FOR MAKING IRREG ULAR-SHAPED PIPES. 327 

rings or sections of the required diameter and thickness as 
will form the halves of the pattern from which the casting 
is to be moulded. These in conjunction with the half- 
flanges and core-prints are always ready for any order that 
may come along, the only thing necessary to be made being 
the core-iron or arbor for the green- sand core ; thereby 




Fig. 286. 



obviating all the difficulty connected with the lack of oven 
facilities, as well as cost of pattern making. 

The engravings used to illustrate this subject will serve 
to explain the method more readily than could be done 
otherwise. Fig. 284 is a perspective view of the bottom half 
of an elbow pattern formed by the rings, with flanges and 
core-prints set in position ready for ramming into the 
bottom box. All the preparation needed is to have a 
templet of rough board cut out to the form of the inside 
of the pipe, to which the flanges can be secured. This 
being laid on the face board in the right position, the rings 



328 



THE IRON-FOUNDER. 



previously spoken of must be placed over the templet or 
guide. 

By referring to Fig. 285, which is a plan of elbow, with 
the sections or rings marked off, it will be seen that they 
are to be made tapering or wedge-shaped to any dimension 
suitable for the job, although it is well to make them as 
small as practicable, seeing that they must be made flat, 
and not to the circle or curve of the pattern ; otherwise it 
would mar their usefulness in the places where it is nearly 
or altogether straight. The first six, a, b, c, d, e,f, are seen 




Fig. 287. 



to be all alike, and fit, side by side, round the circle. At 
g and h is shown the use of odd rings, at different angles, 
in bringing the joints to the proper angle for taking either 
wedge or parallel sections, as shown at i and;. The 
moulder may use his own judgment as to the propriety of 
making parallel sections, as at h and I ; for, as will be seen 
by referring to the plan at g, the wedges may be reversed 
alternately, thus answering for the straight sections of the 
pipe, as well as the curves. There will, of course, be some 
portions that the rings may fail in wholly covering; but 



METHOD FOR MAKING IRREG ULAR-SHAPED PIPES. 329 

the ingenuity of the moulder will overcome any difficulty 
that may arise in that particular. 

The bottom flask being rammed and turned over, the 
templet and core-prints removed, and after the prints have 




Fig. 288. 



been prepared for parting easily, the core must be rammed 
and formed in the inside, over which the top halves of the 
flanges and the rings are to be set, thus con pleting the 
pattern ready for the top flask. Nothing now remains but 
to finish the mould in the regular way. 





Fig. 289. 



Fig. 290. 



I think it will be plain to any practical moulder, that 
when he possesses a set of rings such as I have described 
he can make any form of pipe wanted, of the diameter and 
thickness for which the rings were made. The method 
must commend itself particularly to firms doing a large 
trade in crooked pipes, constantly changing in form, to 
suit the several places which they must fit. Very often 
they are made in loam, to save cost of pattern-making — a 
very expensive way of moulding such castings, we must 



380 



THE mON-FOUNBEB. 



admit — all of which can be saved by the adoption of the 
method herein suggested. Of course I admit there is a 
limit to its usefulness, but do not hesitate to state that all 
pipes up to 18 inches diameter, of whatever form, may be 
successfully made at less than half the cost of making by 
the present methods. 

One important item in the moulding of pipes by this 
method is the core-irons or arbors. Very often (when it could 
be easily avoided) the irons are made in one piece, and have 




Fig. 291. 

to be broken out, thus necessitating a new iron for each 
casting. There is really no need for this expense in the 
majority of instances, as they can be made in sections, 
cutting them at such places as will allow of their being 
drawn from the casting without having to be broken. Fig. 
286 is a perspective view of the core-iron required, show- 
ing a plan of locking two irons together lengthwise. is 
where the end of A meets B. In A is cast an iron, formed 
like the letter L , so that its under side will be level with 
the top of core-iron, as seen at D. A clamp, E, is cast in 
B to receive this iron, leaving space between for driving a 
hard-wood wedge, which will hold the two irons firmly 
together whilst the core is being made and handled. The 
wood expands* as it absorbs moisture from the damp sand, 



METHOD FOR MAKING IRREG ULAR-SHAPED PIPES. 331 

and is therefore becoming more firm all the time until 
cast. Then, of course, the wedge shrinks, or burns away; 
and gives freedom to the irons, making their withdrawal 
from the casting comparatively easy. 

Fig. 287 shows plan of core-iron for a pipe of that form. 
A joins B at G, and the lock is seen at D. When cast, A 
can be pulled straight out, and B will travel in the direc- 
tion of the circle. All pipes which are but segements of 
circles, such as Fig. 288, need only a plain iron, with suitable 
arrangements for handling, and are easily taken out. 

Fig. 289 shows an elbow with long end. This iron joins 





Fig. 292. 



Fig. 293. 



together at A, and the lock is as before shown. Fig. 290 is 
a plan of pipe often made. It will be seen that A joins B 
at 0, making it easy to draw out each part separately. 

Fig. 291 shows plan of core-iron for a tee or cross-pipe. 
As will be observed, it requires a somewhat different 
arrangement to meet this case. Let the reader refer to the 
perspective view of this iron at Fig. 292: it will be seen at 
a glance that a recess is left in core-iron B to receive the 
reduced end of A, which passes in under the clamp and is 
then wedged firmly to place. It will also be seen that the 
wings cannot be cast on the reduced end of A, conse- 



332 



THE IRON-FOUNDER. 



quently loose ones are made to be slipped on after the two 
irons are braced together. 

Fig. 293 shows the loose wing, the hole in which can be 
made large enough to admit of a wood wedge either under 
or over. These illustrations will, I think, be sufficient to 
give an idea of the system of core-irons needed to save the 
expense of making new ones every cast. 



MOULDING SMALL CASTINGS. 

There are many ways of moulding small work where 
large numbers of one kind are required. Ordinarily when 
one or two only are wanted of a casting, such as is seen in 
plan and section at Fig. 294, the pattern is placed along 





Fig. 294. 



Fig. 295. 



with others in a flask like the one shown at Fig. 296, taking 
care to joint down to the half of curve on the round edge, 
so that, after the impression of the top side has been taken 
in the cope or top part of flask, the pattern can be with- 
drawn, the gates to the various castings being cut with 
tools for the purpose. All this is proper where a different 
casting (or castings) are made in almost every flask; but 
such castings are in consequence very high in price, on 



MOULDING SMALL CASTINGS. 



333 



account of the extra time required to make them. But 
when a large order of one kind of casting is given, a much 
better method may be adopted. A good method is shown 
at Figs. 295 and 296, being an illustration of the match- 
board system, and eminently suited for this kind of work. 
Let Fig. 295 be turned so that the cope side is at the 
bottom, and it will be more readily understood. As will 
be seen, the match-board takes the correct form of pattern 





Fig. 296. 



Fig. 297. 



up to the half of curve, as seen at B. The patterns — 
eight in number — are made fast to this board as seen in 
plan at Fig. 296, the gates also being attached to board, the 
intention being that when the board is lifted off, all the 
patterns shall be drawn at once with the gates ready cut. 
As this work is small, a snap flask will be all that is 
required to mould them. To accomplish this, let the 
match-board be large enough to pin on the flask, the pins 
being long, to reach through the board and into the up- 
per half of flask, as seen at A, Fig. 297. Commence by 



334 



THE IRON-FOUNDER. 



setting the flask down with board between, ram the nowel, 
and roll over on a rough board. (Let the engraving be now 
reversed, so as to have cope side on top.) Set in gate-pin 
C, and ram the cope; after lifting off the cope, tap the 
corners of the match-board and draw off. 

Nothing remains now to be done but close the mould 
over eight washers, made in an incredibly short space of 
time. 

Fig. 298 shows another kind of casting, which, if moulded 




Fig. 298. 




in the ordinary way, there would be very slow progress 
made. A match-board in plan is shown at Fig. 299; ten 
patterns are arranged with gates attached. Should there 
be any difficulty in drawing these patterns with the match- 
board, they can be placed on the board loose and drawn 
from the sand separately. A section of such a mould is 
shown at Fig. 297. As will be seen, a flask is needed for 
such a job as this. The flask is shown, but though the 
pins are seen at the sides, it is intended that they shall be 



A METHOD OF MOULDING PIPES AND COLUMNS. 335 

set in at the ends, as shown in plan, Fig. 299. Iron plates 
are of course secured to the edge of the flask through which 
the pin passes; these serve as a protection to the pin-hole. 
See A, Fig. 299, and B, Fig. 297. 

The simplicity of this arrangement is apparent, and will 
recommend itself to any firm which once in a while 
receives an order for a large number of castings of a kind 
similar to those described, but have made them in the ordi- 
nary way on account of the cost of getting up an elaborate 
system of match-plates. The cost is trifling compared 
with the advantages gained, as very inferior men can read- 
ily turn off treble the quantity of work they have been 
accustomed to by the ordinary system. 



A METHOD OF MOULDING PIPES AND 
COLUMNS. 

About the year 1863 I was working at the Vauxhall 
Foundry, Liverpool, England; this firm had on hand at 
that time a large order of pipes for the corporation of that 
place. Some of these pipes were of considerable magni- 
tude, and of such shape, sometimes, that the skill of the 
very best moulders was tasked almost to its limit to produce 
them successfully. 

Large numbers of straight lengths were being swept on 
end in loam, and, where practicable, patterns were made 
for the production of others by the ordinary methods in 
green sand. 

During this busy time I was much interested in some new 
arrangements which were being made for the production of 
straight socket-pipes 3 feet diameter and 10 feet long; but 
leaving the place before the plan was completed, I was 



336 THE IRON-FOUNDER. 

unable to witness the operation. However, I learned 
afterwards that it worked admirably. 

Some five years after this a strike occurred at one of the 
shops in the town where I was then working, on account of 
one of these machines being introduced there for the mould- 
ing of small pipes, resulting finally, after great loss to all 
concerned, in its being adopted into the family of moulders 
employed there. 

Twelve years ago I was standing in the gangway of 
Delamater's Foundry, New York City, when I was accosted 
by a man who claimed to be the original inventor of the 
above-mentioned machine, and, for a slight consideration, 
offered to make us a model of the same in wood. His offer 
was accepted, and to work he went, borrowing tools suitable 
for the occasion from the pattern-makers. 

Model made to suit a short length of 6-inch pipe, he at 
once proceeded to make the mould, which proved to be a 
correct demonstration of all he had said — a really creditable 
piece of work. 

The model was laid away for future consideration, and 
to the best of my knowledge was never brought out again, 
the business of the firm not being in that line. 

I am aware that the great and increasing demand for 
cast-iron pipes has necessitated the building of large plants 
for their exclusive manufacture upon the most approved 
methods; in fact, some of the methods now in vogue are 
simply astounding, so rapid is the output, and of such 
excellent quality are the castings. Yet, all this admitted, 
there is considerable merit in the method herein explained ; 
as much for its suggestiveness in the application of its 
principles to other kinds of work as well as to the object 
used for illustration. See Fig. 300. 

The casting chosen for the purpose of explanation is a 
straight piece of 12-inch pipe or column. The first requi- 
site for this method is a table or bed-plate on which to ram 



A METHOD OF MOULDING PIPES AND COLUMNS. 337 

the two parts of the flask, which may be made of wood or 
iron according as the magnitude of the job demands. These 




two parts must necessarily be cope or barred flasks, as they 
are to take the -impression from the pattern, which remains 



338 THE IRON-FOUNDER. 

stationary on its bearings in the bed -plate. In order to 
accomplish this with accuracy, cams are secured to the ends 
of the pattern, which are to rest on adjustable bearings at 
each end of the bed-plate ; this allows of the pattern being 
withdrawn before the cope is lifted off the bed-plate; a 
simple half turn of the pattern being sufficient to accom- 
plish this. 

If the job is a large one, suitable gearing can be secured 
at one end for this purpose, smaller patterns being easily 
revolved by a long bar inserted into holes at the end. The 
accompanying illustrations will enable the reader to under- 
stand the whole matter at a glance. A is an end elevation, 
and B is a plan of bed-plate with pattern C in position 
thereon. Lugs D and E, at both ends, must be arranged 
so that the cope and drag can be rammed on the one bed 
plate, either by inserting pins for the flask with holes and 
vice versa for the one with pins, or any other way which 
may suggest itself to the reader. 

I have given at F a view of the pattern raised by the 
cam into position for ramming: and at G the pattern is 
shown clear of the mould above and ready for lifting away 
the flask. 

The two sectional elevations H and / will show more 
clearly the working of this method; J and ./Tare the adjust- 
able bearings upon which the cam revolves, and when that 
side of the cam which is the furthest removed from the 
centre is resting on the bearing, the pattern is one half 
above and the other half below the face of the bed-plate, as 
seen at F and H, the opposite being the case at G and I, 
which shows the pattern resting on that side of the cam 
nearest the centre of the pattern and away from the mould. 

At L I have shown a section of the upper and lower 
halves of mould when closed over the core; M being a 
side elevation of flask, showing lug N with the pin and key 
in position. 



INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING PATTERNS. 339 

When the quantity of castings required will admit of 
such a rig being introduced, an amazing difference in the 
output will result, as will be readily understood when we 
consider that there is absolutely no finishing of the mould 
required. 



INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING PATTERNS FROM 

MODELS, TEMPLETS, PLASTER CASTS, 

CARVED BLOCKS, ETC. 

Almost every branch of the iron trade has its attractions, 
and strangers to the business are captivated when they 
witness for the first time the apparent wonders they see in 
the several -departments of a well-equipped ironworks. 
But the foundry has claims on the unitiated far greater 
than all the rest combined. Mystery seems to shroud the 
manipulations of the moulder, and they exclaim "Won- 
derful I" at every new revelation which presents itself to 
their astonished gaze. 

Of course the average moulder does not share in this 
almost universal admiration for his trade: he considers it 
more or less a humdrum life, with plenty of hard work 
attending it, and hopes to get out of it as soon as he can. 
But in almost every foundry there is to be found, a few 
men who really like the work, and who are never so well 
pleased as when some job demanding more than ordinary 
ability to accomplish is given them to make. 

I am aware that there is considerable sameness when the 
moulding to be done is from a pattern, and the same pattern 
every day; such an experience is certainly monotonous. Yet 



340 



THE IRON-FOUNDER. 



even this has its advantages, inasmuch as such a job 
allows the mind free scope for other subjects; and if full 
advantage be taken of this opportunity for thought, much 
good may come out of it after all. 

The subject I have chosen for this article is just such a 
one as must be interesting to all thinking moulders; and 
while I have selected but a few illustrations to work on, it 
will be seen that they are sufficient to explain the whole 
matter intelligibly, thus enabling the moulder to apply the 
principles to any other job of a like nature. 

We will first consider what can be done with the templet 
and strickle. Fig. 301 is the sketch of a section of top and 




Fig. 301. 



Fig. 302. 



bottom railing about 9 inches wide and £ inch thick all 
over. These are made in various lengths, some straight and 
others curved at one end. A few hours, at most, will serve 
to make such a pattern as this by the method under consider- 
ation, the only outlay for pattern work being the strickle 
and templet on which it is to travel. First consider a 
straight piece of pattern, say six feet long, and to the di- 
mensions given for Fig. 301. Let it be the top half. By 
referring to Fig. 302 it will be seen at a glance. Such as this 
can be made readily in a flask by securing parallel pieces 
(planed to a true surface) on the edges of the flask, as seen 



INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING PATTERNS. 341 

at A. The strickle is shown resting on these pieces, with 
stop B at one end, to guide it straight. 

The first thing to be done is to ram the sand very hard 
in the flask, and strike off the form of top side of pattern; 
this is the line marked C on the strickle. If this is care- 
fully done a true and hard surface is the result. Smooth 
over and dust on the parting sand, taking care to have no 
more on than is necessary to part the cope. Let the cope 
be evenly rammed on this and lifted away. Before pro- 
ceeding to strike out the thickness the bed must be pre- 
pared, as in this condition it would be altogether too hard 
for the iron to rest on. After such preparation is made, 
then strike off the thickness, as shown at line marked D. 
I have shown a space outside the web at E. This is to aid 
in securing a good inner edge when the web is deep, leav- 
ing the outside to be made up with a piece of pattern the 
thickness required. All that is needed now is the right 
man to finish up the mould — one who has made the use of 
his tools a study. Such a man will turn out a pattern by 
this method, equal in every respect to the one made from 
a wooden model ; in fact, very often much superior, as there 
is always great difficulty in keeping such light patterns in 
shape. Of course blocks can be made to fit them, but this 
is only adding still more expense; and why incur all this 
unnecessary outlay when it can be avoided with better 
results? All that is required when the pattern is to be 
other than straight is to have the bearings on which the 
strickle works made to the required curve or angle. Sup- 
pose we want a curve on one end with a rise or a droop; 
what more simple than to cast two straight-edges in lead ? 
With these the problem is solved, for they can be bent to 
any form desired, and placed at the ends of the parallel 
straight-edges; thus furnishing the working plant for mak- 
ing any form of rail pattern required, or any other of a 
similar form. 



342 THfi motf-FOUNDER. 

Patterns for lintels, cornices, sills, etc., are usually required 
to be from \ inch to f inch thick. If made of wood, they 
are very costly and are easily broken. An excellent method 
for making all such patterns is shown in Fig. 303, which is 
a perspective view of the templets AB, and strickle (7, rest- 
ing on the ends. The pattern intended to be made from 
these is a lintel, about 6 feet long, 1 foot 6 inches wide and 
6 inches deep, with 10 inches rise in the arch. The design is 
to be as shown on the strickle. The guide-stop D can be on 
either side or on both. All that is required to make such 
a pattern is to level a bed on the floor on which to place the 
templet, then, after ramming in sufficient sand to form the 
mould, the strickle, which forms the outside of pattern to 
be made, must be first used, taking care to have the face 
true and hard. Should it be required to continue the 
design at each end, then guides E must be screwed on the 
ends of the templet, on which to work the strickle up and 
down. When this is done, take away the templet and 
finish well before the parting sand is used. Of course 
it requires care in placing the lifters and ramming the 
cope, so as not to disturb any of the sand model, but 
when properly done a good impression can be had. When 
the cope is lifted off, the templet must be replaced, and 
after the requisite preparations for venting, etc., have been 
made, proceed to ram the core, and with strickle No. 2 
(which must have the required thickness allowed when 
made) proceed as directed for the outside. 

I may be pardoned for again saying that unless a first- 
class workman be entrusted with this kind of work, good 
results cannot ensue, as there are so many points to be 
watched, such as the even ramming, correct finish, and an 
eye at all times to the draught required to insure a smooth 
working pattern. 

Although I have not shown ends on the templet at Fig. 
303, they can be put on when it is thought advantageous. 



INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING PATTERNS. 343 

It will at once be seen that this method may be applied 
to a wide range of work, and that it costs comparatively 
nothing for pattern-making. 

The strickle can be made equally efficacious in producing 
other forms of patterns; for circles are as readily made by it 
as those we have been considering. Fig. 304 is an elevation 
of a half base for an 18-inch column, T 5 g inch thick. By re- 
ferring to Fig. 305 it will be seen that such a pattern can be 
made on the same principle as described for the flat surfaces. 
The strickle A works on circular bearings i? (7 attached to the 
ends of flask D. The bearings are to be of the same diam- 






Fig. 303. 



Fig. 304. 



eter as the outside of ends of pattern required. The first 
strickle forms the outside, the impression of which is taken 
in the cope, after which the thickness is struck off, as before 
shown. But a much readier way is shown at Fig. 306 to make 
this pattern; the cope is there shown as the templet instead 
of the nowel. To do this it is necessary to have the cope 
barred to suit the job and rammed from the inside, making 
sure to have the joint good and firm. The first strickle in 
this case forms the surface in which the core is to be 
rammed, and after treating it in the same manner as before 
directed for parting, the nowel is rammed and both parts 
rolled over together. When the cope is again turned back, 



344 THE IRONFOUNDER. 

strickle No. 2 is used to strike out the thickness, and this, 
of course, will be the outside of the pattern. As a rule, the 
latter method is the best, as it gives less trouble in ram- 
ming, and secures a better core with less labor. It is right 
to say here that when method shown at Fig. 306 is adopted, 
the ends must be of the same diameter as the inside of 
pattern. 

Numerous illustrations might be given to show the 
adaptability of this method to the production of other cir- 
cular patterns, but I feel sure that enough has been said to 
prove its adequacy; for by slight modifications of the sys- 
tem almost every emergency may be met successfully. 

We will now consider the subject of making cast patterns 
from models, plaster casts,and carved blocks. Fig. 307 is the 
sketch of a newel-post, quite a familiar object, and needs no 
explanation. My reasons for selecting this post is because 
it furnishes capital opportunities for illustrating the method 
of making patterns from carved blocks. This post is sup- 
posed to be 12 inches square at the base and cap, and 3 feet 
high ; such a post is usually made up of four thin slabs about 
i inch thick, mitred at the corners, and held together by 
internal fastenings. Being sold at so much apiece, it of 
course behooves the founder to keep them as light as possi- 
ble, especially as competition in their manufacture is very 
keen. In fact, however massive any of this class of work 
may seem, we may rest assured that it is just as thin as the 
manufacturer knew how to make it. Some of this work is 
really handsome, and tests the skill of the carver to pro- 
duce it, but carving out the face side is not the whole 
difficulty. If (as is sometimes attempted) the back is cut 
out to the desired thickness all over, the chances are that 
some parts will be cut through, whilst other parts will not 
be cut deep enough; and to avoid the former evil, it is 
considered best to be on the safe side, and the casting is 
consequently much heavier than it ought to be. All this 



INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING PATTERNS, 345 

can be easily remedied by a very simple process. Fig. 308 is 
the perspective view of a slab of very plain design. It will 
be seen that in making such a slab from which to mould 
the pattern sufficient lumber must be used, either solid or 
built in layers, to suit the form of pattern, and high enough 
to leave the block firm after the deepest recesses have been 
cut out. The block is to be mitred on the sides its whole 
length, as seen at A; the line of thickness is also shown on 
the end at BC, and from this line let the block be well 
tapered at both ends. 




Fig. 305. 



"We will now show how to make a cast pattern from this 
block J inch thick. To do so, we require two copes that are 
an exact fit to the same nowel. Let the block be set face 
up (convenient for easy moulding) in cope No. 1 in the 
customary way for rolling over. Ram the nowel very hard 
and roll over both parts together. In making the joint, be 
sure of a little surface past the feather-edge (for reasons to 
be explained further on), and be careful to have the joint 
at the ends exact to the thickness line; this impression 
must now be taken in cope No. 1, which must also be 
rammed extra hard. Lift off the cope and lay back on soft 
sand, draw out the block and proceed to lay in the thick- 
ness, which will be made of clay, after this manner: The 
best clay for the purpose is the red, smooth kind; have it 
dried and crushed; then sift through a fine sieve and mix 



346 



THE IRON-FOUNDER 



the consistency of stiff putty. Now lay two strips J inch 
thick on a smooth board as far apart as required, and roll 
out the clay between. All that is now needed is a knife 
and a little ingenuity, and the clay may be cut and laid on 
the hard mould with the greatest accuracy, every part of 
the surface being correct to thickness. It will now be seen 
why the bottom was to be rammed so hard the first time, 
and also why the joint was to be extended past the feather- 
edge; in the latter case the thickness can stand past the 
edge a little when laid on, and pared off even with the joint 




Fig. 306. 



afterwards. Now prepare for parting, and take this im- 
pression in cope No. 2. (This will be the top part of mould 
and the back of pattern.) Should there be intricate parts 
in the lift, clamp the two parts together and roll them both 
back on a soft bed. You can now loosen the nowel and 
lift the sand away carefully without disturbing any of the 
mould in the cope. When the clay is removed you have a 
perfect impression. In finishing this, be careful to give 
good draft where it is needed. The necessity of cope No. 1 
is now seen, for the joint in this is the same impress as that 
in cope No. 2, and nothing remains to be done but to 
place in the back, bring on the nowel, and ram so as to give 
a good, even casting. When this is turned over, cope 
No. 1 ends its usefulness by leaving you the joint exactly 



INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING PATTERNS. 347 



corresponding with the impression taken in cope No. 2, so 
that you have an absolute fit when they are placed together, 
and an even thickness at every part of the pattern. Should 
the design be very elaborate, with many delicate edges, it 
will facilitate the thicknessing very much if a coat of plaster 
be run over the pattern instead of the hard ramming as 





Fig. 307. 



Fig. 308. 



directed, thus leaving a good hard face to lay the clay 
to. This is best where there is very fine carving and the 
pattern is to be extra light, such as for ornaments, fine 
mouldings, and all patterns for decorative purposes. 

When the model covers a large space it is customary for 
the designer to have it cast in plaster sections to insure easy 
and safe shipments. To make a pattern from such sections 
it will (in the majority of instances) be found best to cast 



348 THE IRON-FOUNDER. 

the face in the cope. These sections will have no regular 
form on the back, as there is no particular attention paid 
to that part of the model, only to have sufficient body of 
plaster to take in the deepest recesses; it will therefore 
require some modifications of the previous instructions to 
make such patterns face side up. Let the nowel be placed 
on the floor and proceed to arrange the sections of model 
(face up) in such a manner as will be most convenient for 
moulding, and be sure that all the several pieces have a 
solid bearing, so that the ramming of the cope will not dis- 
turb any of them. As before, there will be copes No. 1 and 
No. 2 in this case. After the joint has been rammed very 
hard it must be formed carefully all round, and the whole 
face prepared for separation. Cope No. 1 will be now 
used, and as this will be for the mould proper, every pre- 
caution must be taken to secure a good face; and when 
rammed it must be lifted off and placed aside. Now bring 
on cope No. 2, and be sure to ram the face of this as hard 
as possible; when this is laid back on the floor the clay 
thickness is to be laid on accurately all over the impress of 
model as before shown, and after the necessary preparations 
for an easy separation have been made the nowel must be 
rammed, due precautions being taken to secure a good 
mould. The whole can now be rolled back and the cope 
lifted off carefully, so as not to disturb any of the mould 
under the clay. Nothing more is required but to finish 
cope No. 1 and the nowel, and then close The joints of 
course will correspond, for although the nowel-joint is the 
impress of cope No. 2, it must be remembered that both 
copes were rammed on the same joint, before the nowel was 
lifted to be rammed on cope No. 2. 

I shall be excused, I think, for so much apparent repeti- 
tion in these instructions, because I know that, to those who 
have had no experience in this class of work, there seems 
more or less mystery in the use of two copes; but a little 



INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING PATTERNS. 349 

thought will overcome all this, and the whole thing appear 
in all its simplicity. To foundries where no pattern-makers 
are employed a knowledge of the methods is indispensable, 
as it places them (so far as this class of work is concerned) 
on an equal footing with the best-equipped firms. 

To conclude : I would say that many ingenious contriv- 
ances will suggest themselves to the moulder engaged on 
this line of work; as, for instance, a rough block with bear- 
ings for a strickle to work on can be struck off in plaster to 
any design which runs the same along its whole length; this 
can be used as a model and backed out with clay thickness 
as directed. All such patterns as are shown at Fig. 301 can 
be treated this way, thereby enabling the moulder to choose 
either the method explained at Fig. 302 or the one just con- 
sidered. In fact, this article is but a mere outline of what 
can be done by these methods; for when once entered into 
it will be found that scarcely any limit can be placed to its 
usefulness. 



PART VI. 

MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS, BECIPES, 
TABLES, ETC. 



USEFUL EULES OF MENSURATION. 

Mensuration of the Circle, Cylinder, Sphere, 
Square, etc. 

(1) The areas of circles are to each other as the squares 
of their diameters. 

(2) The diameter of a circle being 1, its circumference 
equals 3.1416. 

(3) The diameter of a circle is equal to .31831 of its 
circumference. 

(4) The square of the diameter of a circle being 1, its 
area equals .7854. 

(5) The diameter of a circle multiplied by .8862, or the 
circumference multiplied by .2821, equals the side of a 
square of equal area. 

(6) The sum of the diameters of two concentric circles 
multiplied by their difference and by .7854 equals the area 
of the space or ring contained between them. 

(7) The sum of the thickness and internal diameter of a 
cylindric ring multiplied by the square of its thickness and 
by 2.4674 equals its solidity. 

(8) The circumference of a cylinder multiplied by its 
length or height equals its convex surface. 

(9) The area of the end of a cylinder multiplied by its 
length equals its solid contents. 

(10) The square of the diameter of a sphere multiplied 
by 3. 1416 equals its convex surface. 

350 



MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS, RECIPES, ETC. 351 

(11) The cube of the diameter of a sphere multiplied by 
.5236 equals its solid contents. 

(12) The height of any spherical segment or zone multi- 
plied by the diameter of the sphere of which it is a part and 
by 3.1416 equals the area of the convex surface of the seg- 
ment ; or, 

(13) The height of the segment multiplied by the circum- 
ference of the sphere of which it is a part equals the area. 

(14) The solidity of any spherical segment is equal to 
three times the square of the radius of its base plus the square 
of its height, and multiplied by its height and by .5236. 

(15) The solidity of a spherical zone equals the sum of the 
squares of the radii of its two ends and one third the square 
of its height multiplied by the height and by 1.5708. 

(16) The side of a square equals the square root of its area. 

(17) The diagonal of a square equals the square root of 
twice the square of its side. 

(18) The side of a square is equal to the square root of 
half the square of its diagonal. 

(19) The side of a square equal to the diagonal of a given 
square contains double the area of the given square. 

Or Triangles, Polygons, etc. 

(20) The complement of an angle is its defect from a 
right angle. 

(21) The supplement of an angle is its defect from two 
right angles. 

(22) The area of a triangle equals half the product of the 
base multiplied by the perpendicular height; or, 

(23) The area of a triangle equals half the product of the 
two sides and the natural sine of the contained angle. 

Ellipses, Cones, etc. 

(24) The product of the two axes of an ellipse multiplied 
by .7854 equals its area. 



352 



THE IRON-FOUNDEB. 



(25) The curve surface of a cone is equal to half the 
product of the circumference of its base multiplied by its 
slant side ; to which if the area of the base be added the 
sum is the whole surface. 

(26) The solidity of a cone equals one third of the prod- 
uct of its base multiplied by its altitude or height. 

(27) The squares of the diameters of the two ends of the 
frustum of a cone, added to the product of the two diame- 
ters, and that sum multiplied by its height and by .2618, 
equals its solidity. 



CAST-IKON ALLOYS. 

To Toughen - Cast-iron. — 10 to 15 per cent of wrought- 
iron scrap (stirred in) ; i of 1 per cent of copper (stirred 
in). 

WEIGHT OP CAST-IRON BALLS IN POUNDS. 



Dia. 


Weight. 


Dia. 


Weight. 


Dia. 
61 


Weight. 


Dia. 
9i 


Weight. 


Dia. 


Weight. 




.137 


3f 


7.22 


38 


109 


12 


237 


H 


.194 


31 


7.97 


6f 


40 


9| 


113 


121 


268 


1^ 

J-4 


.265 


4 


8.76 


6| 


43 


9^ 


118 


13 


301 


If 


.354 


41 


9.61 


61 


45 


9f 


123 


131 


338 


H 


.461 


4i 


10.51 


7 


47 


9f 


127 


14 


376 


If 


.587 


41 


11.47 


n 


50 


91 


132 


141 


418 


If 


.732 


4* 


12.48 


7i 


53 


10 


138 


15 


463 


n 


.902 


H 


13.5 


7| 


55 


101 


143 


151 


511 


2 


1.09 


4f 


14.6 


n 


58 


10i 


148 


16 


562 


21 


1.31 


41 


15.8 


n 


61 


lOf 


153 


161 


623 


2i 


1.56 


5 


17.1 


n 


64 


101 


159 


17 


674 


2f 


1.83 


51 


18.4 


n 


67 


10f 


165 


171 


735 


3£ 


2.13 


5i 


19.8 


8 


71 


lOf 


171 


18 


799 


21 


2.47 


5f 


21.2 


8| 


74 


101 


177 


181 


868 


2f 


2.84 


5^ 


22.7 


8± 


77 


11 


183 


19 


940 


21 


3.25 


5f 


24.3 


8f 


81 


iH 


189 


191 


1016 


3 


3.69 


5| 


26.0 


81 


85 


Hi 


196 


20 


1097 


31 


4.17 


51 


27.5 


8f 


88 


m 


202 


201 


1181 


3i 


4.70 


6 


29.5 


8f 


92 


hi 


209 


21 


1269 


3| 


5.26 


61 


31.7 


81 


96 


ill 


216 


22 


1459 


31 


5.87 


6i 


33.4 


9 


100 


hi 


223 


23 


1667 


3| 


6.32 


6f 


35.4 


**8 


105 


hi 


230 


24 


1894 



MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS, RECIPES, ETC 353 



TABLE 

Showing the Weight ok Pressure a Beam of Cast-iron will 
Sustain without Destroying its Elastic Force when it 
is Supported at Each End and Loaded in the Middle. 



All the Beams are one inch thick. 





Length 


Length 


Length 


Length 


Length 


Depth 
in 


6 feet. 


7 feet. 


8 feet. 


9 feet. 


10 feet. 


Inchss. 














Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


3 


1,278 


1,089 


954 


855 


765 


3J 


1,739 


1,482 


1,298 


1,164 


1,041 


4 


2,272 


1,936 


1,700 


1,520 


1,360 


4* 


2,875 


2,450 


2,146 


1,924 


1,721 


5 


3,560 


3,050 


2,650 


2,375 


2,125 


6 


5,112 


4,356 


3,816 


3,420 


3,060 


n 

i 


6,958 


5,929 


5,194 


4,655 


4,165 


8 


9,088 


7,144 


6,784 


6,080 


5,440 


9 




9,801 


8,586 


7,695 


6,885 


10 




12,100 


10,600 


9,500 


8,500 


11 






12,826 


11,495 


10,285 


12 






15,264 


13,680 


12,240 


13 








16,100 


14,400 


14 








18,600 


16,700 



CHAPLETS. 

Thicknc\ss:of Column. Diam. of Stud, 

¥',r,r, r r 

l'Mr.u-" ,.... r 

if, ir, if,"ir r 

u", 2", 2r\ 2*", 2i" r 

2r,2f", 2t">2|" 1" 

3", 3i", 8*"..... H" 



354 



THE IRON-FOUNDER. 






WEIGHT IN POUNDS OF CIRCULAR PLATES ONE INCH 
THICK FROM 1 TO 103 INCHES IN DIAMETER. 



Dia. 



1 

H 

2 

2* 

2* 

3i 

3 

3* 
3* 
3| 
4 

4* 

4* 

4f 

5 

5* 

5* 

5f 

6 

6* 

6* 
6| 

7 

n 

7f 

8 

8* 
8* 

8f 
9 

9* 
»* 

9f 
10 
10* 
10* 
lOf 

11 

1U 



Weight. 



.204 

.459 

.618 

1.04 

1.27 

1.55 

1.84 

2.16 

2.51 

2.90 

3.27 

3.69 

4.14 

4.61 

5.11 

5.43 

6.18 

6.76 

7.35 

7.98 

8.63 

9.41 

10.10 

10.74 

11.49 

12.27 

13.10 

13.85 

14.77 

15.64 

16.55 

17.48 

18.43 

19.42 

20.42 

21.4 

22.5 

24 

25 

26 



Dia. 


Weight. 


U* 


27 


HI 


29 


12 


30 


12* 


31 


12* 


32 


12£ 


34 


13 


35 


13* 


36 


13* 


38 


I3f 


39 


14 


41 


14* 


42 


14* 


43 


14| 


45 


15 


46 


15* 


48 


15* 


50 


15| 


51 


16 


53 


16* 


54 


16* 


56 


16f 


58 


17 


60 


17* 


61 


17* 


63 


17f 


65 


18 


67 


18* 


70 


19 


74 


19* 


78 


20 


82 


20* 


86 


21 


91 


21* 


93 


22 


99 


22* 


104 


23 


109 


23* 


113 


24 


118 


24* 


123 



Dia. 



25 

25* 

26 

26* 

27 

27* 

28 

28* 

29 

29* 

30 

30* 

31 

31* 

32 

32* 

33 

33* 

34 

34* 

35 

35i 

36 

37 

38 

39 

40 

41 

42 

43 

44 

45 

46 

47 

48 

49 

50 

51 

52 

53 



Weight. 


Dia. 
54 


Weight. 


Dia. 
94 


128 


596 


133 


55 


618 


95 


139 


56 


641 


96 


144 


57 


664 


97 


149 


58 


687 


98 


156 


59 


711 


99 


161 


60 


736 


100 


166 


61 


760 


101 


172 


62 


785 


102 


178 


63 


811 


103 


184 


64 


837 


104 


190 


65 


863 


105 


197 


66 


890 


106 


203 


67 


917 


107 


210 


68 


945 


108 


216 


69 


973 


109 


223 


70 


1001 


110 


230 


71 


1030 


111 


237 


72 


1059 


112 


244 


73 


1089 


113 


251 


74 


1119 


114 


258 


75 


1149 


115 


265 


76 


1180 


116 


280 


77 


1211 


117 


295 


78 


1243 


118 


311 


79 


1275 


119 


327 


80 


1307 


120 


344 


81 


1340 


121 


361 


82 


1374 


122 


378 


83 


1407 


123 


396 


84 


1441 


124 


414 


85 


1477 


125 


433 


86 


1510 


126 


452 


87 


1546 


127 


471 


88 


1588 


128 


491 


89 


1618 


129 


511 


90 


1655 


130 


532 


91 


1692 




553 


92 


1729 




574 


93 


1767 





Weight. 

1805 
1843 

1882 
1922 
1962 
2002 
2043 
2084 
2125 
2167 
2208 
2252 
2295 
2339 
2382 
2427 
2472 
2517 
2562 
2608 
2655 
2700 
2748 
2783 
2834 
2892 
2941 
2990 
3040 
3090 
3141 
3191 
3243 
3294 
3346 
3399 
3452 



S MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS, RECIPES, ETC. 355 

TABLE OF DIMENSIONS AND WEIGHTS OF SHORT- 
LINKED CHAINS AND ROPES, AND PROOF OF CHAIN 
IN TONS. 

Haswell. 



Dia. of 
Chain. 

Inches 



5 



7 

i 

9 



13 

Ttf 

7 

"S" 
15 
TS 

1 



Weight Proof 
Fathom. 
Lbs. 



6 

8.5 



11 
14 
18 
24 
28 
32 
36 
44 
50 
56 



Strain. 



Tons. 



.75 

1.5 
2.5 
3.5 

4.5 

5.25 

6.5 

7.75 

9.25 

10.75 

12.5 

14 



Circum 

ference of 

Rope. 

Inches. 



2* 
3* 
4 

4f 

5* 

6i 

7 

71 

Sir 
9 

10 



Weight of 
Rope per 
Fathom. 

Lbs. 



1.5 
2.5 
3.75 
5 

7 

8.7 
10.5 
12 
15 

17.5 
19.5 



Chains for cranes should be 
made of short oval links, 
and should not exceed 
one inch in diameter. 

The ropes of the sizes given 
are considered to be of 
equal strength with the 
chains, which being 
short-linked are made 
without studs. — Has- 
well. 



Templeton. 



Dia. of 
Chain. 

Inches. 


Proof Strain. 
Tons. 


Dia. of 
Chain. 

j Inches. 


Proof Strain. 
Tons. 


Dia. of 
Chain. 

Inches. 


Proof Strain. 
Tons. 


5 

f 

7 

4 


1 
2 
3 

4 


9 
IS 

t 
11 

1 


5 
6 
8 
9f 


13 
7 
A 

TS 
1 


Hi 

13 
15 
18 



TO MEND CASTINGS. 



To Mend Holes in Castings.— Sulphur in powder, 
1 part; sal-ammoniac in powder, 2 parts; fine iron borings, 
80 parts. Make into a thick paste and fill the holes. 

Note. — These ingredients can be kept separate, and 
mixed when required. 



356 THE IRON-FOUNDER 

Sulphur, 2 parts; fine black-lead, 1 part. Melt the sul- 
phur in an iron pan; then add the lead; stir well and 
pour out. When cool, break into small pieces. A suf- 
ficient quantity being placed on the part to be mended 
can be soldered with a hot iron. 

Cement for covering Scars or stopping Holes in 
Castings. — (This will resist fire or water.) — Equal parts 
of gum-arabic, plaster of Paris, and iron filings. A little 
finely pulverized white glass added to this mixture makes 
it still harder. Keep in a dry state, and mix with water 
when wanted. 

To Fill Holes in Castings. — Lead, 9 parts; anti- 
mony, 2; and bismuth, 1. Melt together and pour in. 
(Expands in cooling.) 



WEIGHT OF ONE CUBIC INCH OF DIFFERENT METALS 

IN POUNDS. 

Metal. Lbs. 

Brass (average) .3023 

Bronze 306 

Copper, cast 3135 

Gold, pure 6965 

Iron, cast 2622 

Iron, wrought 282 

Lead, cast 415 

Steel 281 

Tin, cast 263 

Zinc, cast 26 

Antimony 242 

Bismuth 355 

Manganese 289 

Silver ... .378 

Platinum 735 

Cadmium .312 

Potassium 031 



MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS, RECIPES, ETC. 



357 



WEIGHT OF DIFFERENT SUBSTANCES IN POUNDS. 

Cubic Inch. 

Antimony 242 

Bismuth 355 

Brass 319 

Bronze 314 

Manganese 289 

Mercury 491 

Nickel 318 

Fresh water 03617 

Sand 055 

Coal 0452 

Brick 0723 

Oak 0351 

Ash 0305 

Cork 0087 

Pitch pine 024 



CAPACITY OF CISTERNS FOR EACH 10 INCHES IN 

DEPTH. 



""eet Diameter. 


Galls. 


Feet Diameter. 


Galls. 


2 


.... 19.5 


8.5 


354 


2.5 


.... 30.6 


9 


397 


3 


.... 44.07 


9.5 


442 


3.5 


.... 59.97 


10 


490 


4 


.... 78.33 


11 


593 


4.5 


... 99.14 


12 


705 


5 


....122.4 


13 


828 


5.5 


....149 


14 


960 


6 


....177 


15 


1102 


6.5 


....207 


20 


1959 


7 


....240 


25 


3060 


7.5 ,. 


276 


30 


4407 


8 


....314 







358 



THE IRONFOUNDER. 



THE FRACTIONAL PARTS OF AN INCH IN DECIMALS. 



i = 



i 

16 



.875 

.75 

.625 

:500 

.375 
.250 
.125 
.0625 



+ 


i _ 
T6 — 


.9375 


+ 


l _ 


: .8125 


+ 


l _ 

T6 - 


: .6875 


+ 


1 _ 
T6 - 


: .5625 


+ 


1 _ 

16 ~ 


: .4375 


+ 


1 — 


: .3125 


+ 


1 _ 
16 — 


: .1875 



MELTING-POINTS OF SOLIDS. 



Cast-iron 3477° 

Wrought-iron 3981° 

Gold 2587° 

Silver 1250° 

Steel 2501° 

Brass 1897° 

Copper 2550° 

Glass 2377° 

Platinum 3077° 



Lead 600° 

Zinc 741° 

Cadmium 602° 

Saltpetre 600° 

Tin 420° 

Sulphur 225° 

Potassium. , 135° 

Antimony 951° 

Bismuth 476° 



STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 

Tensile or breaking strength is the ability of the metal 
to resist a force tending to pull it apart. 

Elastic resistance is the tendency of the metal to return 
back to its original shape and dimensions. 



RELATIVE STIFFNESS OF MATERIALS TO RESIST A 
TRANSVERSE STRAIN. 



Ash 

Beech 

Cast-iron. 
Elm 



.089 
.072 



1. 



.073 



Oak 095 

White Pine 1 

Wrought-iron 1.3 

Yellow Pine 087 



MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS, RECIPES, ECT. 359 



WEIGHT OF CAST-IRON PIPES PER LINEAL FOOT 

FROM 2 INCHES TO 10 FEET CORE. 

The Diameter of Core is given in Inches and the weight of One Lineal Foot 

in Lbs. 



Dia. 


X 
4 


t 


\ 


f 


1 


7 
¥ 


1 


n 


2 


5.51 


8.71 


12.25 


16.07 


20.2 


25 


30 


35 


2i 


6.12 


9.65 


13.47 


17.61 


23 


27 


32 


38 


2* 


6.73 


10.57 


I 14.7 


19.13 


24 


29 


35 


40 


2f 


7.35 


11.47 


15.92 


20.67 


26 


32 


37 


43 


3 


7.96 


12.41 


17.15 


22.2 


28 


34 


40 


46 


3£ 


8.57 


13.32 


18.37 


24 


30 


36 


42 


49 


3* 


9.18 


14.25 


19.6 


26 


32 


38 


45 


51 


3| 


9.8 


15.15 


21 


27 


34 


40 


47 


54 


4 


10.41 


16.07 


23 


29 


35 


42 


50 


57 


4i 


11.02 


17 


24 


30 


37 


44 


52 


60 


4* 


11.63 


17.91 


25 


32 


39 


47 


54 


63 


4| 


12.25 


19 


26 


33 


41 


49 


57 


65 


5 


12.86 


20 


26 


35 


43 


51 


59 


68 


5ir 


13.47 


21 


29 


36 


45 


53 


62 


71 


5* 


14.08 


22 


30 


38 


46 


55 


64 


74 


5| 


14.69 


23 


31 


40 


48 


57 


67 


76 


6 


15.31 


24 


32 


41 


50 


59 


69 


79 


6f 


16 


25 


34 


43 


52 


62 


72 


82 


6£ 


17 


26 


35 


44 


54 


64 


74 


85 


6| 


18 


27 


36 


46 


56 


66 


76 


87 


7 


18 


28 


37 


47 


57 


68 


79 


90 


T* 


19 


29 


38 


49 


59 


70 


81 


93 


n 


19 


29 


40 


50 


61 


72 


84 


96 


n 


20 


30 


41 


52 


63 


74 


86 


98 


8 


21 


31 


42 


53 


65 


77 


89 


101 


8i 


21 


32 


43 


55 


67 


79 


91 


104 


84 


22 


33 


45 


56 


68 


81 


94 


107 


8| 


23 


34 


46 


58 


70 


83 


96 


109 


9 


23 


35 


47 


59 


72 


85 


99 


112 


9* 


24 


36 


48 


61 


74 


87 


101 


115 


n 


24 


37 


50 


63 


76 


89 


103 


118 


n 


25 


38 


51 


64 


78 


92 


106 


120 


10 


26 


39 


52 


66 


80 


94 


108 


123 


lOir 


26 


40 


53 


67 


81 


96 


111 


126 


10i 


27 


40 


54 


69 


83 


98 


113 


129 


lOf 


27 


41 


56 


70 


85 


100 


116 


131 


11 


28 


42 


57 


72 


87 


102 


118 


134 



360 



THE IRON-FOUNDER 



Dia. 


li 


If 


H 


If 


H 


1^ 


2 


3 


2 


40 


46 


52 


58 


65 


72 


79 


148 


2i 


43 


49 


56 


62 


69 


76 


84 


155 


n 


46 


53 


59 


66 


73 


81 


89 


162 


2£ 


49 


56 


63 


70 


78 


85 


94 


170 


3 


53 


59 


67 


74 


82 


90 


99 


177 


3J 


56 


63 


70 


78 


86 


95 


103 


184 


3i 


59 


66 


74 


82 


91 


99 


108 


192 


3f 


62 


70 


78 


86 


95 


104 


113 


199 


4 


65 


73 


81 


90 


99 


108 


118 


206 


4J 


68 


76 


85 


94 


103 


113 


123 


214 


4i 


71 


80 


89 


98 


108 


118 


128 


221 


4| 


74 


83 


92 


102 


112 


122 


133 


228 


5 


77 


86 


96 


106 


116 


127 


138 


236 


5i 


80 


90 


100 


110 


121 


131 


143 


243 


5i 


83 


93 


103 


114 


125 


136 


148 


250 


5| 


86 


96 


107 


118 


129 


141 


152 


258 


6 


89 


100 


111 


122 


133 


145 


157 


265 


6i 


92 


103 


114 


126 


138 


150 


162 


272 


6i 


95 


107 


118 


130 


142 


154 


167 


280 


6f 


98 


110 


122 


134 


147 


159 


172 


287 


7 


102 


113 


125 


138 


151 


164 


177 


295 


7i 


105 


117 


129 


142 


155 


168 


182 


302 


7i 


108 


120 


133 


146 


159 


173 


187 


309 


7| 


111 


123 


136 


150 


163 


177 


192 


317 


8 


114 


127 


140 


154 


168 


182 


197 


324 


8i 


117 


130 


144 


158 


172 


187 


201 


331 


8i 


120 


134 


148 


162 


176 


191 


206 


339 


8| 


123 


137 


151 


166 


181 


196 


211 


346 


9 


126 


140 


155 


170 


185 


200 


216 


353 


9i 


129 


144 


159 


174 


189 


205 


221 


361 


91 


132 


147 


162 


178 


193 


210 


226 


368 


9| 


135 


150 


166 


182 


198 


214 


231 


375 


10 


138 


154 


170 


186 


202 


219 


236 


383 


101 


141 


157 


174 


190 


206 


223 


241 


390 


10| 


144 


161 


178 


194 


211 


228 


246 


397 


lOf 


147 


164 


181 


198 


215 


232 


250 


405 


11 


151 


167 


184 


202 


219 


237 


255 


412 



MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS, RECIPES, ETC. 
WEIGHT OF CAST-IRON PIPES— Continued. 



861 



Dia. 


i 


* 


t 


1 


li 


U 


If 


2 


m 


29 


58 


89 


121 


154 


188 


224 


261 


Hi 


29 


59 


91 


123 


157 


192 


228 


266 


hi 


30 


61 


93 


126 


160 


196 


233 


271 


12 


31 


62 


94 


128 


163 


199 


237 


275 


12* 


32 


63 


96 


131 


166 


203 


241 


280 


12* 


33 


64 


98 


133 


169 


206 


245 


285 


12f 


33 


66 


100 


136 


172 


210 


249 


290 


13 


34 


67 


102 


138 


175 


214 


253 


295 


13i 


34 


68 


103 


140 


178 


217 


258 


299 


18* 


35 


69 


105 


143 


181 


221 


262 


304 


13| 


35 


70 


107 


145 


184 


225 


266 


309 


14 


36 


72 


109 


148 


187 


228 


271 


314 


14i 


37 


73 


111 


150 


190 


232 


275 


319 


14* 


37 


74 


113 


152 


193 


236 


279 


324 


14| 


38 


75 


114 


155 


197 


239 


283 


329 


15 


38 


76 


116 


157 


200 


243 


288 


334 


15i 


39 


78 


118 


160 


203 


247 


292 


339 


15* 


40 


79 


120 


162 


206 


250 


296 


344 


15f 


41 


80 


122 


165 


209 


254 


301 


348 


16 


42 


81 


124 


167 


212 


258 


305 


353 


161 


41 


83 


125 


170 


215 


261 


309 


358 


m 


42 


84 


127 


172 


218 


265 


314 


363 


16f 


42 


85 


129 


174 


221 


269 


318 


368 


17 


43 


86 


131 


177 


224 


272 


322 


373 


m 


43 


87 


133 


179 


227 


276 


326 


378 


m 


44 


89 


135 


182 


230 


280 


330 


383 


17f 


45 


90 


136 


184 


233 


283 


335 


388 


18 


46 


91 


138 


187 


236 


287 


339 


393 


18* 


46 


94 


142 


192 


242 


295 


348 


402 


19 


48 


96 


146 


197 


249 


302 


356 


412 


19* 


49 


99 


149 


201 


255 


309 


365 


422 


20 


50 


101 


153 


206 


261 


317 


374 


432 


20* 


51 


103 


157 


211 


267 


324 


382 


442 


21 


53 


106 


160 


216 


273 


331 


391 


451 


21* 


54 


108 


164 


221 


279 


339 


399 


461 


22 


55 


111 


168 


226 


285 


346 


408 


471 


22£ 


56 


113 


171 


231 


291 


353 


416 


481 


23 


57 


116 


175 


236 


298 


361 


425 


491 


23| 


59 


118 


179 


241 


304 


368 


434 


500 


24 


60 


121 


182 


246 


310 


375 


442 


510 


25 


62 


125 


190 


255 


322 


390 


459 


530 


26 


65 


130 


197 


265 


334 


405 


476 


549 


27 


67 


135 


204 


275 


345 


419 


494 


569 


28 


69 


140 


212 


285 


359 


434 


511 


589 


29 


72 


145 


219 


295 


371 


450 


528 


608 


30 


75 


150 


227 


304 


383 


464 


545 


628 



362 THE iRONFOVNbm. 

WEIGHT OF CAST-IRON PIPES— Continued. 



Dia. 


i 


t 


1 


1 


li 


H 


If 


2 


31 


79 


155 


234 


314 


394 


478 


562 


647 


32 


79 


160 


241 


324 


408 


493 


579 


667 


33 


82 


165 


249 


334 


420 


508 


597 


687 


34 


84 


170 


256 


344 


432 


522 


614 


706 


35 


87 


174 


263 


353 


445 


537 


631 


726 


36 


89 


179 


271 


363 


457 


552 


648 


745 


37 


92 


184 


278 


373 


469 


567 


665 


765 


38 


94 


189 


285 


383 


481 


581 


682 


785 


39 


97 


194 


293 


393 


494 


596 


699 


804 


40 


99 


199 


300 


402 


506 


611 


718 


824 


41 


102 


204 


308 


412 


518 


625 


734 


843 


42 


104 


209 


315 


422 


530 


640 


751 


863 


43 


106 


214 


322 


432 


543 


655 


768 


883 


44 


109 


219 


329 


442 


555 


669 


785 


902 


45 


111 


223 


337 


451 


567 


684 


802 


922 


46 


114 


228 


344 


461 


579 


699 


820 


941 


47 


116 


234 


352 


471 


592 


714 


837 


961 


48 


119 


238 


359 


481 


604 


728 


854 


981 


49 


121 


243 


366 


491 


616 


743 


871 


1000 


50 


124 


248 


374 


500 


628 


758 


888 


1020 


51 


126 


253 


381 


510 


641 


772 


905 


1039 


52 


129 


258 


388 


520 


653 


787 


922 


1059 


53 


131 


263 


396 


530 


665 


802 


940 


1079 


54 


133 


268 


403 


540 


678 


816 


957 


1098 


55 


136 


272 


410 


549 


690 


831 


974 


1118 


56 


138 


278 


418 


559 


702 


846 


991 


1137 


57 


141 


282 


425 


569 


714 


861 


1008 


1157 


58 


143 


287 


432 


579 


726 


875 


1025 


1177 


59 


146 


292 


440 


589 


739 


890 


1043 


1196 


60 


148 


297 


447 


598 


751 


905 


1060 


1216 


61 


151 


302 


454 


618 


763 


919 


1077 


1235 


62 


153 


307 


462 


628 


775 


934 


1095 


1255 


63 


155 


312 


469 


638 


788 


949 


1111 


1275 


64 


158 


317 


476 


647 


800 


964 


1128 


1294 


65 


160 


322 


484 


647 


812 


978 


1145 


1314 


66 


163 


326 


491 


657 


824 


993 


1163 


1333 


67 


165 


331 


499 


666 


837 


1008 


1180 


1353 


68 


168 


336 


506 


677 


849 


1022 


1197 


1373 


69 


170 


341 


513 


687 


861 


1037 


1214 


1392 


70 


173 


346 


521 


696 


873 


1052 


1231 


1412 


71 


175 


351 


528 


706 


886 


1066 


1248 


1432 


72 


178 


356 


535 


716 


898 


1081 


1266 


1451 


73 


180 


361 


543 


726 


910 


1096 


1283 


1471 


74 


182 


365 


550 


736 


922 


1111 


1304 


1490 


75 


185 


371 


557 


745 


934 


1125 


1304 


1510 


76 


187 


375 


565 


755 


947 


1140 


1317 


1530 



MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS, RECIPES, ETC. 
WEIGHT OF CAST-IRON FIFES— Continued. 



3G3 



Dia. 


i 


* 


t 


1 


1± 


H 


If 


2 


77 


190 


380 


572 


765 


959 


1155 


1334 


1549 


78 


192 


385 


579 


775 


971 


1169 


1351 


1569 


79 


195 


390 


587 


785 


984 


1184 


1368 


1588 


80 


197 


395 


594 


794 


1000 


1199 


1386 


1608 


81 


200 


400 


601 


804 


1008 


1213 


1403 


1628 


82 


202 


405 


609 


814 


1020 


1228 


1419 


1647 


83 


204 


410 


616 


824 


1033 


1243 


1437 


1667 


84 


207 


415 


624 


834 


1045 


1258 


1454 


1686 


85 


209 


420 


631 


843 


1057 


1272 


1489 


1706 


86 


212 


424 


638 


853 


1069 


1287 


1506 


1726 


87 


214 


429 


646 


863 


1082 


1302 


1523 


1745 


88 


217 


434 


653 


873 


1094 


1316 


1540 


1765 


89 


219 


439 


660 


883 


1106 


1329 


1557 


1784 


90 


222 


444 


668 


892 


1119 


1346 


1574 


1804 


91 


224 


449 


675 


902 


1131 


1360 


1591 


1824 


92 


227 


454 


682 


912 


1143 


1375 


1609 


1843 


93 


229 


459 


690 


922 


1155 


1390 


1626 


1863 


94 


231 


464 


697 


932 


1167 


1404 


1643 


1882 


95 


234 


468 


704 


941 


1180 


1419 


1660 


1902 


96 


236 


473 


712 


951 


1192 


1434 


1677 


1922 


97 


239 


478 


719 


961 


1204 


1449 


1694 


1941 


98 


241 


483 


726 


971 


1217 


1463 


1711 


1961 


99 


244 


488 


734 


981 


1229 


1478 


1729 


1980 


100 


246 


493 


741 


990 


1241 


1493 


1746 


2000 


101 


249 


498 


748 


1000 


1253 


1508 


1763 


2020 


102 


251 


503 


756 


1010 


1266 


1522 


1780 


2039 


103 


254 


508 


763 


1020 


1278 


1537 


1797 


2059 


104 


256 


513 


771 


1030 


1290 


1552 


1814 


2078 


105 


258 


518 


778 


1039 


1302 


1566 


1832 


2098 


106 


261 


522 


785 


1049 


1315 


1581 


1849 


2118 


107 


263 


527 


793 


1059 


1327 


1596 


1866 


2137 


108 


266 


532 


799 


1069 


1339 


1610 


1883 


2157 


109 


268 


537 


807 


1079 


1351 


1625 


1900 


2176 


110 


271 


542 


815 


1088 


1364 


1640 


1917 


2196 


111 


273 


547 


822 


1098 


1376 


1655 


1934 


2216 


112 


276 


552 


829 


1108 


1388 


1669 


1952 


2235 


113 


278 


557 


837 


1118 


1400 


1684 


1969 


2255 


114 


280 


562 


844 


1128 


1413 


1699 


1986 


2274 


115 


283 


567 


851 


1137 


1425 


1713 


2003 


2294 


116 


285 


571 


859 


1147 


1437 


1728 


2020 


2314 


117 


288 


576 


866 


1157 


1449 


1743 


2036 


2333 


118 


290 


581 


873 


1167 


1462 


1757 


2055 


2353 


119 


293 


586 


881 


1177 


1474 


1772 


2072 


2373 


120 


295 


591 

— i 


888 


1187 


1486 


1787 


2089 


2392 



364 



THE IRON-FOUNDER. 



WEIGHT PER LINEAL FOOT OF ROUND COLUMNS. 

Columns in Inches and weight of One Lineal Foot in Lbs. 



Dia. 


\ 


t 


f 


7 


1 


n 


U 


If 


H 


If 


If 


1 7 


2 


4 


18 


21 


24 


27 


30 


















5 


23 


27 


32 


36 


40 


43 


46 


49 


52 










6 


26 


33 


39 


44 


49 


54 


59 


63 


67 


70 


73 


76 


79 


7 


32 


40 


46 


53 


59 


65 


71 


76 


81 


86 


91 


96 


100 


8 


37 


46 


54 


62 


69 


76 


83 


99 


96 


102 


108 


114 


120 


9 


42 


52 


61 


70 


79 


87 


95 


103 


111 


118 


125 


132 


138 


10 


47 


58 


68 


79 


89 


98 


108 


117 


125 


134 


142 


150 


157 


11 


52 


64 


76 


87 


99 


109 


120 


130 


140 


150 


159 


168 


177 


12 


57 


70 


83 


96 


108 


120 


132 


144 


155 


166 


176 


187 


197 


13 


62 


76 


91 


105 


118 


131 


144 


157 


170 


182 


193 


205 


216 


14 


67 


83 


100 


115 


128 


143 


157 


170 


184 


198 


211 


224 


236 


15 


72 


89 


105 


122 


138 


154 


169 


184 


199 


214 


228 


242 


255 


16 


76 


95 


113 


131 


148 


164 


181 


197 


214 


230 


245 


260 


275 


17 


81 


100 


120 


138 


157 


175 


193 


210 


228 


245 


262 


279 


295 


18 


86 


106 


127 


147 


167 


186 


206 


225 


243 


261 


279 


297 


314 


19 


91 


118 


135 


156 


177 


197 


218 


238 


258 


277 


296 


315 


334 


20 


96 


119 


142 


165 


187 


208 


230 


251 


272 


293 


314 


334 


353 


21 


101 


125 


149 


173 


197 


220 


242 264 


287 


309 


330 


352 


373 


22 


106 


182 


157 


182 


206 


231 


255 278 


302 


325 


348 


371 


393 


28 


111 


138 


164 


190 


216 


242 


267 292 


317 


341 


365 


389 


412 


24 


116 


148 


171 


198 


226 


253 


279 305 


331 


357 


382 


407 


432 



WEIGHT OF CASTINGS FROM PATTERNS. 







will we 


igh, when cast, in 




A Pattern, weighing One 












Pound, made of— 








Yellow 


Gun- 




Cast-iron. 


Zinc. 


Copper 


Brass. 


metal. 




Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Mahogany, Nassau 


10.7 


10.4 


12.8 


12.2 


12.5 


" Honduras. 


12.9 


12.7 


15.3 


14.6 


15 


" Spanish. . . 


8.5 


8.2 


10.1 


9.7 


9.9 




12.5 


12.1 


14.9 


14.2 


14.6 


" White 


16.7 
14.1 


16.1 
13.6 


19.8 
16.7 


19 
16 


19.5 


" Yellow 


16.5 


Oak 


9 


8.6 


10.4 


10.1 


10.9 







MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS, RECIPES, ETC. 



365 



WEIGHT OF SQUARE COLUMNS. 



No. of Inches contained in End Section of Column. 



20 



24 


28 


32 


36 


40 


44 


48 


52 


56 


60 



63 



64 



Weight of One Foot in Length, One Inch Thick, in Pounds. 



75 


87 


100 


113 


125 


138 


150 


163 


174 


187 



200 



Dimensions of Columns in Inches. 



6x6 


7x7 


8x8 


9x9 


10x10 


11x11 


12x12 


13x13 


14x14 


15x15 


16x16 


17x17 


7x5 


8x6 


9x7 


10x8 


llx 9 


12x10 


13x11 


14x12 


15x13 


1(5x14 


17x15 


18x16 


8x4 


9x5 


10x6 


11x7 


12x 8 


13x 9 


14x10 


15x11 


16x12 


17x13 


18x14 


19x15 


9x3 


10x4 


11x5 


12x6 


13x 7 


14x 8 


15x 9 


16x10 


17x11 


18x12 


19x13 


20x14 




11x3 


12x4 


13x5 


l4x 6 


15x 7 


16x 8 


17x 9 


18x10 


19x11 


20x12 


21x13 






13x3 


14x4 


15x 5 


16x 6 


17x 7 


18x 8 


19x 9 


20x10 


21x11 


22x12 








15x3 


16x 4 


17x 5 


18x 6 


19x 7 


20x 8 


21x 9 


22x10 


23x11 










17x 3 


18x 4 


19x 5 


20x 6 


21x 7 


22x 8 


23x 9 


24x10 












19x 3 


20x 4 


21x 5 


22x 6 


23x 7 


24x 8 


25x 9 














21x 3 


22x 4 
23x 3 


23x 5 
24x 4 
25x 3 


24x 6 
25x 5 

26x 4 

27x 3 


25x 7 
26x 6 
27x 5 
28x 4 
29x 3 


26x 8 
27x 7 
28x 6 
29x 5 
30x 4 
31x 3 



No. of Inches contained in End Section of Column. 



68 



80 



84 



88 



92 



96 



100 



Weight of One Foot in Length, One Inch Thick, in Pounds. 



213 



225 



238 



250 



263 



275 



288 



300 



313 



Dimensions of Columns in Inches. 



18x18 


19x19 


20x20 


21x21 


22x22 


23x23 


24x24 


25x25 


26x26 


19x17 


20x18 


21x19 


22x20 


23x21 


24x22 


25x23 


26x24 


27x25 


20x16 


21x17 


22x18 


23x19 


24x20 


25x21 


26x22 


27x23 


28x24 


21x15 


22x16 


23x17 


24x18 


25x19 


26x20 


27x21 


28x22 


29x23 


22x14 


23x15 


24x16 


25x17 


26x18 


27x19 


28x20 


29x21 


30x22 


23x13 


24x14 


25x15 


26x16 


27x17 


28x18 


29x19 


30x20 


31x21 


24x12 


25x13 


26x14 


27x15 


28x16 


29x17 


30x18 


31x19 


32x20 


25x11 


26x12 


27x13 


28x14 


29x15 


30x16 


31x17 


32x18 


33x19 


26x10 


27x11 


28x12 


29x13 


30x14 


31x15 


32x16 


33x17 


34x18 


27x 9 


28x10 


29x11 


30x12 


31x13 


32x14 


33x15 


34x16 


35x17 


28x 8 


29x 9 


30x10 


31x11 


32x12 


33x13 


34x!4 


35x15 


36x16 


29x 7 


30x 8 


31 x 9 


32x10 


33x11 


34x12 


35x13 


36x14 


37x15 


30x 6 


31x 7 


32x 8 


33x 9 


34x10 


35x11 


36x12 


37x13 


38x14 


31 x 5 


32x 6 


33x 7 


34x 8 


35x 9 


36x10 


37x11 


38x12 


39x13 


32 x 4 


33x 5 


34x 6 


35x 7 


36x 8 


37x 9 


38x10 


39x11 


40x12 


33x 3 


34x 4 


35x 5 


36x 6 


37x 7 


38x 8 


39x 9 


40x10 


41x11 




35x 3 


36x 4 


37x 5 


38x 6 


39x 7 


40x 8 


41x 9 


42x10 






3?x 3 


38x 4 


39x 5 


40x 6 


41x 7 


42x 8 


43x 9 








39x 3 


40x 4 


41x 5 


42x 6 


43x 7 


44x 8 



366 



THE IRON-FOUNDER. 



WEIGHT OF SQUARE COLUMNS— Continued. 



No. 


ol Inches contained 


in End Section of Column. 


104 


108 


112 


116 


120 


124 


128 


132 


136 


140 


144 


148 


Weight of One Foot in Length, One Inch Thick, in Pounds. 


325 


337 


350 


362 


375 


387 


400 


412 


425 


437 


450 


462 


Dimensions of Columns in Inches. 


27x27 


28x28 


29x29 


30x30 


31x31 


32x32 


33x33 34x34 


35x35 


36x36 


37x37 


38x38 


28x26 


29x27 


30x28 


31x29 


32x30 


33x31 


34x32' 35x33 


36x34 


37x35 


38x36 


39x37 


29x25 


30x26 


31x27 


32x28 


33x29 


34x30 


35x31| 36x32 


37x33 


38x34 


39x35 


40x36 


30x24 


31x25 


32x26 


33x27 


34x28 


35x29 


36x30' 37x31 


38x32 


39x33 


40x34 


41x35 


31x23 


32x24 


33x25 


34x26 


35x27 


36x28 


37x29 38x30 


39x31 


40x32 


41x33 


42x34 


32x22 


33x23 


34x24 


35x25 


36x26 


37x27 


38x28 i 39x29 


40x30 


41x31 


42x32 


43x33 


33x21 


34x22 


35x23 


36x24 


37x25 


38x26 


39x27 40x28 


41x29 


42x30 


43x31 


44x32 


34x20 


35x21 


36x22 


37x23 


38x24 


39x25 


40x26 41x27 


42x28 


43x29 


44x30 


45x31 


35x19 


36x20 


37x21 


38x22 


39x23 


40x24 


41x25 42x26 


43x27 


44x28 


45x29 


46x30 


36x18 


37x19 


38x20 


39x21 


40x22 


41x23 


42x24 43x25 


44x26 


45x27 


46x28 


47x29 


37x17 


38x18 


39x19 


40x20 


41x21 


42x22 


43x23 44x24 


45x25 


46x26 


47x27 


48x28 


38x16 


39x17 


40x18 


41x19 


42x20 


43x21 


44x22 45x23 


46x24 


47x25 


48x26 


49x27 


39x15 


40x16 


41x17 


42x18 


43x19 


44x20 


45x21 46x22 


47x23 


48x24 


49x25 


50x26 


40x14 


41x15 


42x16 


43x17 


44x18 


45x19 


46x20 47x21 


48x22 


49x23 


50x24 


51x25 


41x13 


42x14 


43x15 


44x16 


45x17 


46x18 


47x19 ! 48x20 


49x21 


50x22 


51x23 


52x24 


42x12 


43x13 


44x14 


45x15 


46x16 


47x17 


48x18 49x19 


50x20 


51x21 


52x22 


53x23 


43x11 


44x12 


45x13 


46x14 


47x15 


48x16 


49x17 50x18 


51x19 


52x20 


53x21 


54x22 


44x10 


45x11 


46x12 


47x13 


48x14 


49x15 


50x16 51x17 


52x18 


53x19 


54x20 


55x21 


45x 9 


46x10 


47x11 


48x12 


49x13 


50x14 


51x15 


52x16 


53x17 


54x18 


55x19 


56x20 


46x 8 


47x 9 


48x10 


49x11 


50x12 


51x13 


52x14 


53x15 


54x16 


55x17 


56x18 


57x19 


47x 7 


48x 8 


49x 9 


50x10 


51x11 


52x12 


53x13 


54x14 


55x15 


50x16 


57x17 


58x18 


48x 6 


49x 7 


50x 8 


51 x 9 


52x10 


53x11 


54x12 


55x13 


56x14 


57x15 


58x16 


59x17 


49x 5 


50x 6 


51x 7 


52x 8 


53x 9 


54x10 


55x11 


56x12 


57x13 


58x14 


59x15 


60x16 


50x 4 


51x 5 


52x 6 


53x 7 


54x 8 


55x 9 


56x10 


57x11 


58x12 


59x13 


60x14 


61x15 




52x 4 


53x 5 


54x 6 


55x 7 


56x 8 


57x 9 


58x10 


59x11 


60x12 61x13 


62x14 






54x 4 


55x 5 


56x 6 


57x 7 


58x 8 


59x 9 


60x10 


61x11 


62x12 


63x13 








56x 4 


57x 5 


58x 6 


59x 7 


60x 8 


61x 9 


62x10 


63x11 


64x12 










58x 4 


59x 5 


60x 6 


61x 7 


62x 8 


63x 9 


64x10 


65x11 












GOx 4 


61x 5 


62x 6 


63x 7 


64x 8 


65x 9 


66x10 














62x 4 


63x 5 
64x 4 


64x 6 
65x 5 
66x 4 


65x 7 
66x 6 
67x 5 
68x 4 


66x 8 
67x 7 
68x 6 
69x 5 
70x 4 


67x 9 

68x 8 
69x 7 
70x 6 
71x 5 
72x 4 



MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS, RECIPES, ETC. 367 
WEIGHT OF SQUARE PLATES ONE INCH THICK. 



Inches 


Pounds 


Inches 


Pounds 


Inches 


Pounds 


Inches 


Pounes: 


square. 


Weight. 


square. 


Weight. 


square. 


Weight. 


square. 


Weight. 


12 


37£ 


46 


552 


80 


1668 


114 


3388 


13 


44 


47 


576 


81 


1711 


115 


3448 


14 


51 


48 


601 


82 


1753 


116 


3508 


15 


58 h 


49 


626 


83 


1796 


117 


3569 


16 


66^ 


50 


652 


84 


1839 


fl8 


3630 


17 


75 


51 


678 


85 


1884 


119 


3692 


18 


84 


52 


705 


86 


1928 


120 


3754 


19 


95 


53 


732 


87 


1973 


121 


3817 


20 


104 


54 


760 


88 


2019 


122 


3880 


21 


115 


55 


789 


89 


2065 


123 


3944 


22 


126 


56 


818 


90 


2112 


124 


4009 


23 


138 


57 


847 


91 


2159 


125 


4073 


24 


150 


58 


876 


92 


2207 


126 


4139 


25 


163 


59 


907 


93 


2255 


127 


4205 


26 


176 


60 


939 


94 


2304 


128 


4271 


27 


190 


61 


970 


95 


2353 


129 


4338 


28 


204 


62 


1002 


96 


2403 


130 


4406 


29 


219 


63 


1035 


97 


2453 


131 


4474 


30 


235 


64 


1068 


98 


2504 


132 


4542 


31 


251 


65 


1101 


99 


2555 


133 


4612 


32 


267 


66 


1136 


100 


2607 


134 


4681 


33 


284 


67 


1170 


101 


2659 


135 


4751 


34 


301 


68 


1205 


102 


2712 


136 


4822 


35 


319 


69 


1241 


103 


2766 


137 


4893 


36 


338 


70 


1277 


104 


2820 


138 


4965 


37 


357 


71 


1314 


105 


2874 


139 


5037 


38 


376 


72 


1352 


106 


2929 


140 


5110 


39 


397 


73 


1389 


107 


2985 


141 


5183 


40 


417 


74 


1428 


108 


3041 


142 


5257 


41 


438 


75 


1467 


109 


3097 


143 


5331 


42 


459 


76 


1506 


110 


3154 


144 


5406 


43 


482 


77 


1546 


111 


3212 






44 


505 


78 


1586 


112 


3270 






45 


528 


79 


1627 


113 


3329 


i 





868 



THE IRON-FOUNDER. 



WEIGHT OF A SUPERFICIAL SQUARE FOOT IN POUNDS 
FROM T V INCH TO 3 INCHES. 



Thick- 
ness. 



l 
IS 

l 



7 

H 
1* 

H 

H 
H 
if 

i* 
2 

% 

3 



Cast- 
iron. 


Wrought- 
iron. 


Brass.' 


.Copper. 


Tin. 


Steel. 


2-34 


2.52 


2.7 


2.88 


2.35 


2.59 


4.68 


5.04 


5.4 


5.76 


4.71 


5.18 


9.36 


10.08 


10.8 


11.52 


9.43 


10.36 


14.04 


15.12 


16.2 


17.28 


14.14 


15.55 


18.72 


20.16 


21.6 


23.04 


18.86 


20.73 


23.40 


25.20 


27.0 


28.80 


23.58 


25.92 


28.08 


30.24 


32.4 


34.56 


28.29 


31.10 


32.76 


35.28 


37.8 


40.32 


33.01 


36.28 


37.44 


40.32 


43.2 


46.08 


37.72 


41.47 


42.12 


45.36 


48.6 


51.84 


42.44 


46.65 


46.80 


50.40 


54.0 


57.60 


47.16 


51.84 


51.48 


55.44 


59.4 


63.36 


51.87 


57.02 


56.16 


60.48 


64.8 


69.12 


56.59 


62.20 


60.84 


65.52 


70.2 


74.88 


61.30 


67.39 


65.53 


70.56 


75.6 


80.64 


66.02 


72.57 


70.20 


75.60 


81.0 


86.40 


70.74 


77.76 


74.88 


80.64 


86.4 


92.16 


75.45 


82.94 


84.24 


90.72 


97.2 


103.68 


84.88 


93.31 


93.60 


100.80 


108.0 


115.20 


94.32 


103.68 


112.32 


120.96 


129.6 


138.24 


113.18 


124.41 



Lead. 



3.69 

7.38 

14.76 

22.14 

29.52 

36.92 

44.28 

51.66 

59.04 

66.42 

73.80 

81.08 

88.56 

95.94 

103.32 

110.70 

118.08 

132.84 

147.60 

177.12 



MICELLANEOUS ITEMS, RECIPES, ETC. 



369 



TABLE SHOWING THE WEIGHT OR PRESSURE A BEAM OF CAST IRON, 
1 INCH IN BREADTH, WILL SUSTAIN, WITHOUT DESTROYING ITS 
ELASTIC FORCE, WHEN IT IS SUPPORTED AT EACH END AND 
LOADED IN THE MIDDLE OF ITS LENGTH, AND ALSO THE DEFLEC- 
TION IN THE MIDDLE WHICH THAT WEIGHT WILL PRODUCE. 

By Mr. Hodgkinson, Manchester, Eng. 



Length 


6 feet. 


7 feet. 


8 feet. 


9 feet. 


10 feet. 


Depth 


Weight 


Deflec. 


Weight 


Deflec. 


Weight 


Deflec. 


Weight 


Deflec. 


i 
Weight Deflec. 


in ins. 


in lbs. 


in in. 


in lbs. 


in in. 


in lbs. 


in m. 

.426 


in lbs. 


in in. 

.54 


in lbs. 


in in. 


3 


1,278 


.24 


1,089 


.33 


954 


855 


765 


.66 


8* 


1,739 


.205 


1,482 


.28 


1,298 


.365 


1,164 


.46 


1,041 


.57 


4 


2,272 


.18 


1,936 


.245 


1,700 


.32 


1,520 


.405 


1,360 


.5 


4* 


2,875 


.16 


2,450 


.217 


2,146 


.284 


1,924 


.36 


1,721 


.443 


5 


3,560 


.144 


3,050 


.196 


2,650 


.256 


2,375 


.32 


2,125 


.4 


6 


5,112 


.12 


4,356 


.163 


3,816 


.213 


3,420 


.27 


3,060 


.33 


7 


6,958 


.103 


5,929 


.14 


5,194 


.183 


4,655 


.23 


4,165 


.29 


8 


9,088 


.09 


7,744 


.123 


6,784 


.16 


6.0S0 


.203 


5,440 


.25 


9 






9,801 


.109 


8,586 


.142 


7,695 


.18 


6,885 


.22 


10 






12,100 


.098 


10,600 


.128 


9,500 


.162 


8,500 


.2 


11 










12,826 


.117 


11,495 


.15 


10,285 


.182 


12 










15,264 


.107 


13,680 


.135 


12,240 


.17 


13 














16,100 


.125 


14,400 


.154 


14 














18,600 


.115 


16,700 


.143 




12 feet. 


14 feet. 


16 f et. 


18 feet. 


20 feet. 


6 


2,548 


.48 


2,184 


.65 


1,912 


.85 


1,699 


1.08 


1,530 


1.34 


7 


3,471 


.41 


2,975 


.58 


2,603 


.73 


2,314 


.93 


2,082 


1.14 


8 


4,532 


.36 


3,884 


.49 


3,396 


.64 


3,020 


.81 


2,720 


1.00 


9 


5,733 


.32 


4,914 


.44 


4,302 


.57 


3,825 


.72 


3,438 


.89 


10 


7,083 


.28 


6,071 


.39 


5,312 


.51 


4,722 


.64 


4,250 


.8 


11 


8,570 


.26 


7,346 


.36 


6,428 


.47 


5,714 


.59 


5,142 


.73 


12 


10,192 


.24 


8,736 


.33 


7,648 


.43 


6.796 


.54 


6,120 


.67 


13 


11,971 


.22 


10,260 


.31 


8,978 


.39 


7,980 


.49 


7,182 


.61 


14 


13,883 


.21 


11,900 


.28 


10,412 


.36 


9,255 


.46 


8,330 


.57 


15 


15,937 


.19 


13,660 


.26 


11,952 


.34 


10,624 


.43 


9,562 


.53 


16 


18,128 


.18 


15,536 


.24 


13,584 


.32 


12,080 


.40 


10,880 


.5 


17 


20,500 


.17 


17,500 


.23 


15,353 


.30 


13,647 


.38 


12,282 


.47 


18 


22,932 


.16 


19,656 


.21 


17,208 


.28 


15,700 


.36 


13,752 


.44 



Note.— This table shows the greatest weight that ever ought to be laid upon 
a beam for permanent load; and if there be any liability to jerks, etc., ample 
allowance must be made; also the weight of the beam itself must be included. 



INDEX 



A 

PAGE 

Apprentices, relating to 4 

Apprentice, what age is best 6 

Apprenticeship, by indenture 14 

Apprenticeship, object of 18 

Arbors or core-irons, 297, 302, 327, 330 

Arms and straps for spindle 150, 317 



B 

Backing out the thickness , . . .' 345 

Balls, weight of cast-iron 352 

Barrels or arbors for cores, how to make them 137, 269, 273 

Basins for pouring, how they influence pressure 109 

Bead smoothers 34 

Beams, Hodgkinson's table of „ 369 

Beams, etc., to cast straight 81, 84 

Bearings or joints, to make safe 217, 228, 231 

Bearing-studs, importance of 169 

Bed, to level , 23 

Bench rammer, to make 28 

Bend-pipes on end in loam , 224 

Bedding-in for dry sand 172 

Bedding-in to be avoided, sometimes 45 

Bedding, round and square patterns „ 29 

Bevel and mitre wheels from a pattern, to mould 312 

Bevel- wheels without a full pattern , 305 

Blacking mixture 281 

371 



372 INDEX. 

PAGE 

Blacking for loam-work, how to use 160, 281 

Blast-furnaces, for smelting, how managed, etc 66 

Block-print and core 247, 249 

Buckling, causes of 31 

C 

Cage-iron for jacket-core , 257 

Calcination of iron ores, furnaces and kilns for 65 

Cannon, cause of sponginess in the bore 73 

Car-wheel scrap, how to grade 115 

Carriage for oven 61 

Casings for dry-sand work 264, 267 

Casings, improvised 185, 220 

Casings for kettles and pans in loam 186 

Casings for pipes in loam 215 

Casings, how to prepare for lugs and brackets 190 

Castings, chilled 114 

Castings, clean, how to produce. 235 

Castings, well finished, how to obtain 46 

Castings, to mend 355, 356 

Cast-iron alloys 352 

Cast-iron patterns made from models, casts, and carved blocks. . 344 

Cast-iron, nature and properties of '. 63 

Centre and spindle 316 

Centre, how to set a, for green-sand work 318 

Chains and ropes 355 

Chaplets, table of studs and 353 

Charcoal-iron 115 

Cheeks, to carry 244 

Chilled castings, to mix iron for 114 

Chucks 313 

Chucks, may be dispensed with by using gaggers 27 

Cinder-bed, use of... 306, 310 

Circular plates, weight of 354 

Cisterns in loam, to mould 191 

Cisterns, capacity of 357 

Clamps, how to make them 21 

Clay for moulding purposes 237, 241 

Collar or bushing .,...„ ,..,.. 313 



INDEX. 373 

PAGE 

Columns, weights of round 364 

Columns, weights of square 365, 366 

Columns with heavy bases and heads, how to prevent shrinkage 

cracks in „ 85 

Columus, round, to keep straight. 85 

Columns, square, to keep straight 81 

Condensers in loam, to mould 191 

Contraction, instructions relating to - 76 

Cooling of iron, influence of rapid and slow. 69, 72 

Cope, for use on the floor 40 

Cope-rings, for loam-work 153, 156, 165, 193, 213, 225 

Copes, weight required on 99 

Cope, to build in loam 153, 181, 194, 205, 225 

Cope, to bind or stiffen a 155, 181, 194, 205, 225 

Cores, anchors for 133, 222 

Cores, arbors for.. 129, 130, 131, 132, 216, 222, 262, 273, 297, 302, 330 

Cores, improvised boxes for 136, 222, 327 

Cores, built up with bricks and used horizontally 145, 224 

Cores, how to construct barrels for difficult 143 

Cores, how to blacken loam 160, 161 

Cores, how to strike up loam 139, 141, 156, 157, 222 

Cores, on barrels for elbow-pipes 142 

Core-sand mixtures 123 

Cores for dry-sand work 250 

Cores for bevel -wheels, green sand 307 

Cores, wooden, stiffeners for 128 

Cores, loam, on barrels 137, 228 

Covering-plates, to secure bricks in 157, 168 

Cross for loam-work, lifting 155, 197 

Crown-plate of core in loam, how to prepare a 196 

Crystals, how formed 69 

Crystallization and shrinkage of cast-iron 63 

Cupola, a knowledge of, indispensable 10 

Cylinder in loam, to mould 148, 164 

Cylinder-mould, how to set cores in 170 

Cylinder-mould, how to set steam-chest, etc 166 

Cylindrical work in top and bottom flasks, to mould 274 



374 INDEX 



D 

PAGE 

Damper and racks for oven 60 

Decimal equivalents of an inch 358 

Designing castings, reasons for exercising care in .......... . 71, 73 

Drawbacks 47 

Drawbacks, arbors for 246 

Drawing a simple job on a levelled bed 23 

Drying loam-work with fire-kettles . . 187 

Dry -sand moulding, meaning of 233 

Dry-sand, moulding guns, hydraulic cylinders, etc., in 264 

Dry-sand work, chaplets and studs for 255, 261 

Dry-sand work, facing, ramming, venting, and finishing. 240 

Dry-sand work, flasks for 239, 267, 274 

Dry-sand work, gates and risers for 247, 265, 275, 279, 282 

Dry-sand work, green-sand facing not suitable for 240 

Dry-sand work, how to repair broken parts in 255 

Dry-sand work, less venting and gaggering required for 242 

Dry-sand work, not necessary to cool the iron for 235 

Dry-sand work, paste or any damp preparation unsafe in 254 

Dry-sand work, sands and clays for <. 237 

Dummy-block , 258 



E 

Education, advantages of 3 

Educated moulders 12 

Elbows, bends, and branch-pipes in loam 209, 224 

Elbow-pipes on end in loam, to make 227 

Employers, injustice of some 16 

F 

Facing-sand, how to apply 30 

Feeding castings explained 75 

Finishing tools, artistic 30 

Flange-smoothers 34 

Flask-bars, to wedge in, iron or wood 42, 43 

Elasks, different methods of handling 40, 299 

Flasks, expansion and contraction of 42 



INDEX. 375 



PAGE 



Flasks, hinged 45 

Flasks, in parts 38, 244, 288 

Flasks, interchangeable 38, 40 

Flasks, jobbing, how to make 39, 40, 244 

Flasks, for small work 37 

Flasks made of wood 44 

Flasks, made up of loose sides, ends, and bars 42 

Flasks for spindle-work 274 

Floor-rammer, to make 28 

Flute-smoothers 34 

Foundry ovens, to locate, etc 52 

Foundries, what we see in 9 

Forge or puddling iron 68 

Foundation-plate for loam- work 148, 176, 180, 183, 192, 203 

Foundries, cleanliness in 6 

Fractions of an inch in decimals 358 



G 

Gaggers, how to make and how to use 26 

Gates, arrangement of, for plates, etc 79 

Gates or runners 299 

Gates for cylinders in loam 158 

Green-sand cores 298, 327 

Green-sand moulding 284 

Grooves in core-barrels, how to make 269 

Gauge-stick 153 

Gudgeons for core-barrels 271 

Guides for loam-work 158, 193 

Guns, patterns for , 268 



H 

Hinged cheeks, details of, and how to secure 48, 49, 50 

Hinged cheeks, used for a panelled column 47 

Hinged flasks 45, 299 

Hinges, details of, very simple to apply 51, 52 

Hook-bolts, use for 166, 176 

Hot iron, importance of 236 

Hot-well in loam* building core for 194, 198, 201 



376 INDEX. 

PAGE 

Hot-well in loam, pattern for * 192 

Hydraulic cylinders, long cores f or 273 

I 

Iron, cold-blast, hot-blast, different kinds of 70 

Iron ores, kinds of 64 

Iron ore, methods of calcination 65 

Iron ores, analysis of impurities contained in 65 

Iron, to grade. 116 

Iron, to mix 114 

J 

Jacket-cores, how to make '. 256 

Jobbing-pipes, to make 324 

K 

Kettles and pans in loam, to mould 180 

Kettles off the casing whilst hot, how to lift 189 

Kish, where found and how caused 68 

L 

Level, a good one necessary - 23 

Levelling a bed, how to do it 23 

Lifters, or cleaners 33 

Literature, foundry 5 

Loam mixtures 125 

Loam, to mould a cylinder with steam-ways, foot and end cast 

on 164 

Loam, when it is best to make the job in 171, 172 

Loam, skinning or finishing 152, 155, 181, 188, 280 

Loam-moulders, how to train 171, 174 

Loam-moulding, classes of 148 

Loam-moulding from a complete pattern 171 

Loam-moulding, how to lay bricks for. . .152, 154, 155, 180, 183, 211 

Loam-moulding, principles of 147, 174 

Loam-moulding, sweeps for 151, 217, 225 

Loam-plate, to lay out, on the bed 24 



INDEX. 377 

PAGE 

Loam- work, branches and brackets to build and secure in 199 

Loam-work, building rings for 181, 184, 194, 201 

Loam-work, casings for , 186 

Loam-work, covering-plates for. . . 157, 166, 167, 178, 182, 184, 185, 

197, 199, 200, 209, 220 

Loam-work, crown plate for core in 196 

Loam-work, curbs or tank-plates for 161 

Loam-work, fixed centres for 185 

Loam-work, forming a thickness in , 180, 201 

Loam-work, gates and risers for 182, 196, 207, 219, 232 

Loam-work, horizontal spindles for 217 

Loam-work, how to dress and finish , 159 

Loam-work, how to secure 161, 170, 174, 179, 181, 197, 207, 215 

Loam-work, how to secure intricate places in 167 

Loam-work, ramming up 162, 207 

Loam-work, pits for 164 

Loam-work, spindles for 149, 217 

Loam- work, vents under 182, 189, 198, 232 

Loam-work, to bind and lift sections of 176, 177, 205 

Loam-work, to dry , 207 

Loam-work, to save ramming in. 185 

Loam-work, to separate joints and seatings in 153, 168, 180, 176, 

177, 225 



M 

Manganese in iron 70 

Match-board 332 

Materials, analysis of 2 

Materials, strength of 358 

Melting-points 358 

Mensuration, useful rules in .- 350 

Metals, weight of one cubic inch of different 356 

Metals, weight of a square foot of 368 

Mixtures of cast-iron 70, 114 

Models, templets, plaster- casts, and carved blocks, to make pat- 
terns from 339 

Mottled iron 69 

Moulder, a first-class 8 

Moulders, how made 15 



378 INDEX. 

PAGE 

Moulders, their right position 3 

Moulders' tools, their use aud their abuse 20 

Moulders should be draughtsmen 12 

Moulders, past, present, and future 1 

Moulding a water-cylinder in loam 175 

Moulding-boxes .37, 239, 244, 274 

Moulding in dry-sand 233 

Moulding small castings 332 

Moulds, broken, to re-form or mend 35 

Moulds, pressures in 88 

N 

Numbers 1, 2, and 3 pig-iron, why classed as such 68 

Nuts cast in loam-plates 169 



O 

Ovens, carriage and rigging, details of 59, 62 

Ovens, kinds of fuel for, and methods of firing 57 

Ovens, small ones very useful 54, 61 

Ovens, to locate, etc 52 

Ovens, tracks and road-bed for 57 

Ovens, where to place the furnace, arrangements for draughts, 
etc 54 



P 

Parallel straight-edges, moulders should have 23 

Pattern for bevel-wheel, how to make a 314 

Pattern for square column 298 

Patterns made with templet and strickle 310 

Pattern, weight of casting from. 364 

Phosphorus in iron 70 

Pig-iron, analysis and classification of 67 

Pig-iron, how produced 66 

Pins and keys for flasks 38 

Pins for wooden flasks • • 334 

Pipes and columns, a novel method of moulding 335 

Pipes in green-sand, irregular-shaped 324 



INDEX, 379 

PAGE 

Pipes in loam, thickness to apply on , 211, 226 

Pipes in loam without chaplets or studs 222 

Pipes for vents 170, 254, 259, 261 

Pipes, weight of 359-363 

Pit for dry -sand work, a small 282 

Port, exhaust, and steam-chest cores, how to make. . . .250, 251, 252 

Pressures in cylindrical and spherical moulds 104, 162 

Pressures in moulds, laws govern ing 88, 90 

Pressure, influeuce which risers, or flow-gates, have on. ..... . 113 

Pressure, table showing the amount of Ill 

Pressures under copes and cores 99, 101 

Prickers, use of, in loam-work 168, 178, 183, 196, 215, 229 

Propeller-wheel, to form the hub 203 

Pulley patterns, different kinds of 284 

Pulleys, arbors for 285, 286, 288, 290 

Pulleys, to mould 284 

Pulleys, to mould double-armed , 286 

Pulleys, to mould, from sweeps and cores 291 

Pulleys, to split 295 



R 

Racks for cores, on the carriage and in the oven 60 

Rammers, the right use of 27 

Ramming loam-work in the pit 162 

Ramming round and square patterns 29 

Relative stiffness of materials 358 

Rigging for cores 125, 222, 297, 327 

Ring-bolt 40 

Risers, how to apply, dangers arising from 163, 182, 243, 282 

Risers, what allowance to make for » 113 

Rodman gun, to mould a 2G4 

Roll flasks, how to make 274 

Rolls, how to gate 279 

Rolls, mixtures for , 116 

Runners and risers for pans 182, 189 

Running-basin for cylinder in loam 163 

Running-basins or runners 109 



380 INDEX. 

S 

PAGE 

Sand for cores, mixtures, etc 121, 302 

Sand for moulding 122, 237 

Scabbing, what causes 31 

Scrap, bow to grade, for mixing 116 

Sere w-d river, indispensable to a moulder 22 

Screw-propeller in loam, to mould a 203 

Screw-propeller, to form the blades , . .. . 205 

Screw-propeller, to construct the cope 205 

Screw-propeller, how to make spindle for a 204 

Separating parts in loam... 153, 168, 175, 177, 180, 193, 206, 213, 230 

Shrinkage, instructions relating to 75 

Silicon in iron 70 

Slings for loam-work 155, 197 

Small work, moulding 332 

Smoothing, danger of too much 31, 34 

Snap-flask 38 

Snap-flask, work for 333 

Spiegeleisen, how produced * 64 

Spiegeleisen, what use to make of 115 

Spindle and centre 316 

Spindle-arm and sweep-straps 150,317 

Spindle attachment for moulding bevel- wheels 311 

Spindles or centres for pan-casings 187 

Spindle for green-sand work, how to set a 306 

Splicing core-barrels 273 

Spur-wheel from a segment and spindle 315 

Spur-wheels, how to make true .......... 319 

Spur-wheels of different depths from the same pattern 322 

Square, use of • 24 

Square and rectangular columns, to make 297 

Square plates, weight of 367 

Staking or guide-pieces for flasks 41 

Steam-cylinder in dry-sand, to mould a 243 

Steam-cylinder, how to set port-core in 255 

Steam-cylinder in dry-sand, cores for. 250 

Steam-cylinder, to make pattern for 247 

Steam-cylinder, jacket-cores for 256 

Steam-cylinder, to form a pouring basin for 247 

Studs built in cores 210 



INDEX. 381 

PAGE 

Studs, safe method for securing 211, 213, 216, 261 

Studs to be avoided 174 255 

Sulphur in iron 70 

Surface, how to produce an even 30, 35 

Swab, useful if properly used 26 

Sweeps for green-sand work 307, 314 

Swivels 40, 42 

Swivels for casings 187 

T 

Tanks in loam, to mould , . 191 

Technology, schools of 1 14 

Teeth of wheels, to mould 309, 320 

Templet for pipe 209 

Thickness, how to form a, in loam , 180, 201 

Thickness, how to use the clay 345 

Trades'-unions as educators 14 

Trammels, the moulder should have 23 

Trammels, use of 25 

Tripod, use of the 272 

Trowel, heart and square 31 

Trowels, old ones very useful 31 

Trowels, square, how many required 30 

U 
Unions, a good use for 19 

V 

Vents, how to secure 170, 252, 261, 263 

Vents in casings, how to make 186 

Vent-wires, how to make them 26 

Venting kettles and pans 182 

Venting wheel teeth 310 

W 

Warping, instructions relating to 76 

"Water, a too free use of, to be avoided 26 

Water-barrel for gun-casting , 264 



382 INDEX. 

PAGE 

Water-cylinder, how to mould a. . . ...... . 175 

Weakness, planes of, in castings .„. . . 73 

Web-smoothers, or upsets 33 

Wedges, how to make them „22, 161 

Weight of a square foot of metals „ . ............. . 368 

Weight of castings from patterns. 364 

Weights of different substances «,..„.. 357 

Weight of one cubic inch of different metals 356 

Weights of pipes, table of 35^-363 

Weights of round columns, table of. , . . . . 364 

Weights of square columns . . . . . 365, 366 

Weights of square plates, table of. 367 

White iron 68 

Window -sashes, wrong designs for 87 

Wooden flasks, how to make 44 

Wooden flasks, to preserve the joints of 44 

Wrench, indispensable to a moulder. 22 













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